Riddles of Philosophy
Part I
GA 18
I. Guiding Thoughts on the Method of Presentation
[ 1 ] If we follow the work of the mind invested by man in his attempts to solve the riddle of world and life, the words, “Know Thyself,” which were inscribed as a motto in the temple of Apollo, will suggest themselves to the soul in its contemplation. The understanding for a world conception rests on the fact that the human soul can be stirred by the contemplation of these words. The nature of a living organism involves the necessity of feeling hunger. The nature of the human soul at a certain stage of its development causes a similar necessity. It is manifest in the need to gain from life a certain spiritual return that, just as food satisfies hunger, satisfies the soul's challenge, “Know Thyself.” This feeling can lay hold on the human soul so powerfully that it can be forced to think, “Only then am I fully human in the true sense of the word when I develop within myself a relation to the world that expresses its fundamental character in the challenge, ‘Know Thyself’.” The soul can reach the point where it considers this feeling as an awakening out of the dream of life that it dreamt before this particular experience.
[ 2 ] During the first period of his life, man develops the power of memory through which he will, in later life, recollect his experiences back to a certain moment of his childhood. What lies before this moment he feels as a dream of life from which he awoke. The human soul would not be what it should be if the power of memory did not grow out of the dim soul life of the child. In a similar way the human soul can, at a more developed stage, think of its experience of the challenge expressed in the words, “Know Thyself.” It can have the feeling that a soul life that does not awake out of its dream of life through this experience does not live up to its inner potentialities.
[ 3 ] Philosophers have often pointed out that they are at a loss when asked about the nature of philosophy in the true sense of the word. One thing, however, is certain, namely, that one must see in philosophy a special form of satisfying the need of the human soul expressed in the challenge, “Know Thyself.” Of this challenge one can know just as distinctly as one can know what hunger is, although one may be at a loss to give an explanation of the phenomenon of hunger that would be satisfactory to everybody.
[ 4 ] It was probably a thought of this kind that motivated Johann Gottlieb Fichte when he stated that the philosophy a man chooses depends on the kind of man he is. Animated by this thought, one can examine the attempts that have been made in the course of history to find solutions for the riddles of philosophy. In these attempts one will find the nature of the human being himself revealed. For although man will try to silence his personal interests entirely when he intends to speak as a philosopher, there will, nevertheless, immediately appear in a philosophy what the human personality can make out of itself by unfolding those forces that are most centrally and most originally its own.
[ 5 ] Seen from this viewpoint, the examination of the philosophical achievements with regard to the world riddles can excite certain expectations.
We can hope that such an examination can yield results concerning the nature of human soul development, and the writer of this book believes that in exploring the philosophical views of the occident he has found such results. Four distinctly discernible epochs in the evolution of the philosophical struggle of mankind presented themselves to his view. He had to recognize the difference of these epochs as distinct as the difference of the species of a realm of nature. This observation led him to acknowledge in the realm of the history of man's philosophical development the existence of objective spiritual impulses following a definite law of evolution of their own, independent of the individual men in whom they are observed. The achievements of these men as philosophers thus appear as the manifestation of these impulses that direct the courses of events under the surface of external history. The conviction is then suggested that such results arise from the unprejudiced observation of the historical facts, much as a natural law rests on the observation of facts of nature. The author of this book believes that he has not been misled by preconceptions to present an arbitrary construction of the historical process, but that the facts force the acknowledgment of results of the kind indicated.
[ 6 ] It can be shown that in the evolutionary course of the philosophical struggle of mankind, periods are distinguishable, each of which lasts between seven and eight centuries. In each of these epochs there is a distinctly different impulse at work, as if it were under the surface of external history, sending its rays into the human personalities and thus causing the evolution of man's mode of philosophizing while taking its own definite course of development.
[ 7 ] The way in which the facts support the distinction of these epochs is to be shown in the present book. Its author would like, as far as possible, to let the facts speak for themselves. At this point, he wants to offer a few guiding lines from which, however, the thoughts expressed in this book did not take their departure; they are the results of this book.
[ 8 ] One can be of the opinion that these guiding lines correctly should have been placed at the end of the book because their truth follows only from the content of the complete presentation. They are, however, to precede the subject matter as a preliminary statement because they justify the inner structure of the book. For although they were the result of the author's research, they were naturally in his mind before he wrote the book and had their effect on its form. For the reader, however, it can be important to learn not only at the end of the book why the author presents his subject in a certain way, but to form his judgment concerning this method of presentation already during the reading. But only so much is to be stated here as is necessary for the understanding of the book's arrangement.
[ 9 ] The first epoch of the development of philosophical views begins in Greek antiquity. It can be distinctly traced back as far as Pherekydes of Syros and Thales of Miletos and it comes to a close in the age of beginning Christianity. The spiritual aspiration of mankind in this age shows an essentially different character from that of earlier times. It is the age of awakening thought life. Prior to this age, the human soul lived in imaginative (symbolic) thought pictures that expressed its relation to the world and existence.
All attempts to find the philosophical thought life developed in pre-Greek times fail upon closer inspection. Genuine philosophy cannot be dated earlier than the Greek civilization. What may at first glance seem to resemble the element of thought in Oriental or Egyptian world contemplation's proves, on closer inspection, to be not real thought but parabolic, symbolic conception. It is in Greece that the aspiration is born to gain knowledge of the world and its laws by means of an element that can be acknowledged as thought also in the present age. As long as the human soul conceives world phenomena through pictures, it feels itself intimately bound up with them. The soul feels itself in this phase to be a member of the world organism; it does not think of itself as an independent entity separated from this organism. As the pure pictureless thought awakens in the human soul, the soul begins to feel its separation from the world. Thought becomes the soul's educator for independence.
But the ancient Greek did not experience thought as modern man does. This is a fact that can be easily overlooked. A genuine insight into the ancient Greek's thought life will reveal the essential difference. The ancient Greek's experience of thought is comparable to our experience of a perception, to our experience of “red” or “yellow.” Just as we today attribute a color or tone percept to a “thing,” so the ancient Greek perceives thought in the world of things and as adhering to them. It is for this reason that thought at that time still is the connecting link between soul and world. The process of separation between soul and world is just beginning; it has not yet been completed. To be sure, the soul feels the thought within itself, but it must be of the opinion to have received it from the world and it can therefore expect the solution of the world riddles from its thought experience. It is in this type of thought experience that the philosophical development proceeds that begins with Pherekydes and Thales, culminates in Plato and Aristotle and then recedes until it ends at the time of the beginning of Christianity. From the undercurrents of the spiritual evolution, thought life streams into the souls of man and produces in these souls philosophies that educate them to feel themselves in their self-dependence independent of the outer world.
[ 10 ] A new period begins with the dawn of the Christian era. The human soul can now no longer experience thought as a perception from the outer world. It now feels thought as the product of its own (inner) being. An impulse much more powerful than the stream of thought life now radiates into the soul from the deeper currents of the spiritual creative process. It is only now that self-consciousness awakes in mankind in a form adequate to the true nature of this self-consciousness. What men had experienced in this respect before that time had really only been harbingers and anticipatory phenomena of what one should in its deepest meaning call inwardly experienced self-consciousness.
It is to be hoped that a future history of spiritual evolution will call this time the “Age of Awakening Self-Consciousness.” Only now does man become in the true sense of the' word aware of the whole scope of his soul life as “Ego.” The full weight of this fact is more instinctively felt than distinctly known by the philosophical spirits of that time. All philosophical aspirations of that epoch retain this general character up to the time of Scotus Erigena. The philosophers of this period are completely submerged in religious conceptions with their philosophical thinking. Through this type of thought formation, the human soul, finding itself in an awakened self-consciousness entirely left to its own resources, strives to gain the consciousness of its submergence in the life of the world organism. Thought becomes a mere means to express the conviction regarding the relation of man's soul to the world that one has gained from religious sources. Steeped in this view, nourished by religious conceptions, thought life grows like the seed of a plant in the soul of the earth, until it breaks forth into the light.
In Greek philosophy the life of thought unfolds its own inner forces. It leads the human soul to the point where it feels its self-dependence. Then from greater depths of spiritual life an element breaks forth into mankind that is fundamentally different from thought life—an element that filled the soul with a new inner experience, with an awareness of being a world in itself, resting on its inner point of gravitation. Thus, self-consciousness is at first experienced, but it is not as yet conceived in the form of thought. The life of thought continues to be developed, concealed and sheltered in the warmth of religious consciousness. In this way pass the first seven or eight hundred years after the foundation of Christianity.
[ 11 ] The next period shows an entirely different character. The leading philosophers feel the reawakening of the energy of thought life. For centuries the human soul had been inwardly consolidated through the experience of its self-dependence. It now begins to search for what it might claim as its innermost self possession. It finds that this is its thought life. Everything else is given from without; thought is felt as something the soul has to produce out of its own depth, that is, the soul is present in full consciousness at this process of production. The urge arises in the soul to gain in thought a knowledge through which it can enlighten itself about its own relation to the world. How can something be expressed in thought life that is not itself merely the soul's own product? This becomes the question of the philosophers of that age. The spiritual trends of Nominalism, Realism, Scholasticism and medieval Mysticism reveal this fundamental character of the philosophy of that age. The human soul attempts to examine its thought life with regard to its content of reality.
[ 12 ] With the close of this third period the character of philosophical endeavor changes. The self-consciousness of the soul has been strengthened through century-long work performed in the examination of the reality of thought life. One has learned to feel the life of thought as something that is deeply related to the soul's own nature and to experience in this union an inner security of existence. As a mark of this stage of development, there shines like a brilliant star in the firmament of the spirit, the words, “I think, therefore I am,” which were spoken by Descartes (1596–1650). One feels the soul flowing in thought life, and in the awareness of this stream one believes one experiences the true nature of the soul itself. The representative of that time feels himself so secure within this existence recognized in thought life that he arrives at the conviction that true knowledge could only be a knowledge that is experienced in the same way as the soul experiences thought life resting on its own foundation. This becomes the viewpoint of Spinoza (1632–1677).
Now philosophies emerge that shape the world picture as it must be imagined when the self-conscious human soul, conceived by the life of thought, can have its adequate position within that world. How must the world be depicted so that within it the human soul can be thought to correspond adequately to the necessary concept of the self-consciousness? This becomes the question that, in an unbiased observation, we find at the bottom of the philosophy of Giordano Bruno (1548–1600). It is also distinctly the question for which Leibnitz (1646–1716) seeks the answer.
[ 13 ] With conceptions of a world picture arising from such a question the fourth epoch in the evolution of the philosophical world view begins. Our present age is approximately in the middle of this epoch. This book is to show how far philosophical knowledge has advanced in the conception of a world picture in which the self-conscious soul can find such a secure place, so that it can understand its own meaning and significance within the existing world. When, in the first epoch of philosophical search, philosophy derived its powers from the awakening thought life, the human soul was spurred by the hope of gaining a knowledge of a world to which it belongs with its true nature, which is not limited to the life manifested through the body of the senses.
[ 14 ] In the fourth epoch the emerging natural sciences add a view of nature to the philosophical world picture that gradually senses its own independent ground. As this nature-picture develops, it retains nothing of a world in which the self-conscious ego (the human soul experiencing itself as a self-conscious entity) must recognize itself. In the first epoch the human soul begins to detach itself from the experienced external world and to develop a knowledge concerned with the inner life of the soul. This independent soul life finds its power in the awakening thought element. In the fourth period a picture 'of nature emerges that has detached itself in turn from the inner soul life. The tendency arises to think of nature in such a way that nothing is allowed to be mixed into its conception that has been derived from the soul and not exclusively from nature itself. Thus, the soul is, in this period, expelled from nature, and with its inner experiences confined to its subjective world. The soul is not about to be forced to admit that everything it can gain as knowledge by itself can have a significance only for itself. It cannot find in itself anything to point to a world in which this soul could have its roots with its true being. For in the picture of nature it cannot find any trace of itself.
[ 15 ] The evolution of thought life has proceeded through four epochs. In the first, thought is experienced as a perception coming from without. In this phase the human soul finds its self-dependence through the thought process. In the second period, thought had exhausted its power in this direction. The soul now becomes stronger in the experience of its own entity. Thought itself now lives more in the background and blends into self knowledge. It can no longer be considered as if it were an external perception. The soul becomes used to experiencing it as its own product. It must arrive at the question of what this product of inner soul activity has to do with an external world. The third period passes in the light of this question. The philosophers develop a cognitive life that tests thought itself with regard to its inner power. The philosophical strength of the period manifests itself as a life in the element of thought as such, as a power to work through thought in its own essence. In the course of this epoch the philosophical life increases in its ability to master the element of thought. At the beginning of the fourth period the cognitive self-consciousness, on the basis of its thought possession, proceeds to form a philosophical world picture. This picture is now challenged by a picture of nature that refuses to accept any element of this self-consciousness. The self-conscious soul, confronted with this nature picture, feels as its fundamental question, “How do I gain a world picture in which both the inner world with its true essence and the external nature are securely rooted at the same time?” The impulse caused by this question dominates the philosophical evolution from the beginning of the fourth period; the philosophers themselves may be more or less aware of that fact. This is also the most important impulse of the philosophical life of the present age.
In this book the facts are to be characterized that show the effect of that impulse. The first volume of the book is to present the philosophical development up to the middle of the nineteenth century; the second will follow that development into the present time. It is to show at the end how the philosophical evolution leads the soul to aspects toward a future human life in cognition. Through this, the soul should be able to develop a world picture out of its own self-consciousness in which its true being can be conceived simultaneously with the picture of nature that is the result of the modern scientific development.
[ 6 ] A philosophical future perspective adequate to the present was to be unfolded in this book from the historical evolution of the philosophical world view.
Zur Orientierung über die Leitlinien der Darstellung
[ 1 ] Verfolgt man, was von Menschen an Geistesarbeit geleistet worden ist, um die Lösung der Welträtsel und Lebensfragen zu versuchen, so drängen sich der betrachtenden Seele immer wieder die Worte auf, die im Tempel Apollons wie ein Wahrspruch aufgezeichnet waren: «Erkenne dich selbst». Daß die menschliche Seele beim Vorstellen dieser Worte eine gewisse Wirkung empfinden kann, darauf beruht das Verständnis für eine Weltanschauung. Das Wesen eines lebendigen Organismus führt die Notwendigkeit mit sich, Hunger zu empfinden; das Wesen der Menschenseele auf einer gewissen Stufe ihrer Entwickelung erzeugt eine ähnliche Notwendigkeit. Diese drückt sich in dem Bedürfnisse aus, dem Leben ein geistiges Gut abzugewinnen, das wie die Nahrung dem Hunger, so der inneren Gemütsforderung entspricht: «Erkenne dich selbst». Diese Empfindung kann die Seele so mächtig ergreifen, daß diese denken muß: Ich bin in wahrem Sinne des Wortes erst dann ganz Mensch, wenn ich in mir ein Verhältnis zur Welt ausbilde, das in dem «Erkenne dich selbst» seinen Grundcharakter hat. Die Seele kann so weit kommen, diese Empfindung wie ein Aufwachen aus dem Lebenstraume anzusehen, den sie vor dem Erlebnis geträumt hat, das sie mit dieser Empfindung durchmacht.
[ 2 ] Der Mensch entwickelt sich in der ersten Zeit seines Lebens so, daß in ihm die Kraft des Gedächtnisses erstarkt, durch die er im späteren Leben sich zurückerinnert an seine Erfahrungen bis zu einem gewissen Zeitpunkte der Kindheit. Was vor diesem Zeitpunkte liegt, empfindet er als Lebenstraum, aus dem er erwacht ist. Die Menschenseele wäre nicht, was sie sein soll, wenn aus dem dumpfen Kindeserleben nicht diese Erinnerungskraft herauswüchse. In ähnlicher Art kann die Menschenseele auf einer weiteren Daseinsstufe von dem Erlebnisse mit dem «Erkenne dich selbst» denken. Sie kann empfinden, daß alles Seelenleben nicht seinen Anlagen entspricht, das nicht durch dieses Erlebnis aus dem Lebenstraum erwacht.
[ 3 ] Philosophen haben oft betont, daß sie in Verlegenheit kommen, wenn sie sagen sollen, was Philosophie im wahren Sinne des Wortes ist. Gewiß aber ist, daß man in ihr eine besondere Form sehen muß, demjenigen menschlichen Seelenbedürfnisse Befriedigung zu geben, das in dem «Erkenne dich selbst» seine Forderung stellt. Und von dieser Forderung kann man wissen, wie man weiß, was Hunger ist, trotzdem man vielleicht in Verlegenheit käme, wenn man eine jedermann befriedigende Erklärung des Hungers geben sollte.
[ 4 ] Ein Gedanke dieser Art lebte wohl in J. G. Fichtes Seele, als er aussprach, daß die Art der Philosophie, die man wähle, davon abhänge, was man für ein Mensch sei. Man kann, belebt von diesem Gedanken, an die Betrachtung der Versuche herantreten, welche im Verlaufe der Geschichte gemacht worden sind, den Rätseln der Philosophie Lösungen zu finden. Man wird in diesen Versuchen dann Offenbarungen der menschlichen Wesenheit selbst finden. Denn, obgleich der Mensch seine persönlichen Interessen völlig zum Schweigen zu bringen sucht, wenn er als Philosoph sprechen will, so erscheint doch in einer Philosophie ganz unmittelbar dasjenige, was die menschliche Persönlichkeit durch Entfaltung ihrer ureigensten Kräfte aus sich machen kann.
[ 5 ] Von diesem Gesichtspunkte aus kann die Betrachtung der philosophischen Leistungen über die Welträtsel gewisse Erwartungen erregen. Man kann hoffen, daß sich aus dieser Betrachtung Ergebnisse gewinnen lassen über den Charakter der menschlichen Seelenentwickelung. Und der Schreiber dieses Buches glaubt, daß sich ihm beim Durchwandern der philosophischen Anschauungen des Abendlandes solche Ergebnisse dargeboten haben. Vier deutlich zu unterscheidende Epochen in der Entwickelung des philosophischen Menschheitsstrebens stellten sich ihm dar. Er mußte die Unterschiede dieser Epochen so charakteristisch ausgedrückt finden, wie man die Unterschiede der Arten eines Naturreiches findet. Das brachte ihn dazu, anzuerkennen, daß die Geschichte der philosophischen Entwickelung der Menschheit den Beweis erbringe für das Vorhandensein objektiver von den Menschen ganz unabhängiger geistiger Impulse, welche sich im Zeitenlaufe fortentwickeln. Und was die Menschen als Philosophen leisten, das erscheint als die Offenbarung der Entwickelung dieser Impulse, welche unter der Oberfläche der äußerlichen Geschichte walten. Es drängt sich die Überzeugung auf, daß ein solches Ergebnis aus der unbefangenen Betrachtung der geschichtlichen Tatsachen folge, wie ein Naturgesetz aus der Betrachtung der Naturtatsachen. Der Schreiber dieses Buches glaubt, daß ihn keine Art von Voreingenommenheit zu einer willkürlichen Konstruktion des geschichtlichen Werdens verführt habe, sondern daß die Tatsachen zwingen, Ergebnisse der angedeuteten Art anzuerkennen.
[ 6 ] Es zeigt sich, daß der Entwickelungslauf des philosophischen Menschheitsstrebens Epochen unterscheiden läßt, deren jede eine Länge von sieben bis acht Jahrhunderten hat. In jeder dieser Epochen waltet unter der Oberfläche der äußeren Geschichte ein anderer geistiger Impuls, der gewissermaßen in die menschlichen Persönlichkeiten einstrahlt, und der mit seiner eigenen Fortentwickelung diejenige des menschlichen Philosophierens bewirkt.
[ 7 ] Wie die Tatsachen für die Unterscheidung dieser Epochen sprechen, das soll sich aus dem vorliegenden Buche ergeben. Dessen Verfasser möchte, so gut er es kann, diese Tatsachen selbst sprechen lassen. Hier sollen nur einige Leitlinien vorangesetzt werden, von denen die Betrachtung nicht ausgegangen ist, welche zu diesem Buche geführt hat, sondern welche sich aus dieser Betrachtung als Ergebnis eingestellt haben.
[ 8 ] Man kann die Ansicht haben, daß diese Leitlinien am Ende des Buches am richtigen Orte stünden, da ihre Wahrheit sich erst aus dem Inhalt des Dargestellten ergibt. Sie sollen aber als eine vorläufige Mitteilung vorangehen, weil sie die innere Gliederung der Darstellung rechtfertigen. Denn obgleich sie für den Verfasser des Buches als Ergebnis seiner Betrachtungen sich ergaben, so standen sie doch naturgemäß vor seinem Geiste vor der Darstellung und waren für diese maßgebend. Für den Leser kann es aber bedeutsam sein, nicht erst am Ende eines Buches zu erfahren, warum der Verfasser in einer gewissen Art darstellt, sondern schon während des Lesens über diese Art aus den Gesichtspunkten des Darstellenden sich ein Urteil bilden zu können. Doch soll nur dasjenige hier mitgeteilt werden, was für die innere Gliederung der Ausführungen in Betracht kommt.
[ 9 ] Die erste Epoche der Entwickelung philosophischer Ansichten beginnt im griechischen Altertum. Sie läßt sich deutlich geschichtlich zurückverfolgen bis zu Pherekydes von Syros und Thales von Milet. Sie endet mit den Zeiten, in welche die Begründung des Christentums fällt. Das geistige Streben der Menschheit zeigt in dieser Epoche einen wesentlich anderen Charakter als in früheren Zeiten. Es ist die Epoche des erwachenden Gedankenlebens. Vorher lebt die Menschenseele in bildlichen (sinnbildlichen) Vorstellungen über die Welt und das Dasein. Wie stark man sich auch bemühen möchte, denjenigen recht zu geben, welche das philosophische Gedankenleben schon in vorgriechischen Zeiten entwickelt sehen möchten: man kann es bei unbefangener Betrachtung nicht. Und man muß die echte, in Gedankenform auftretende Philosophie in Griechenland beginnen lassen. Was in orientalischen, in ägyptischen Weltbetrachtungen dem Elemente des Gedankens ähnlich ist, das ist vor echter Betrachtung doch nicht wahrer Gedanke, sondern Bild, Sinnbild. In Griechenland wird das Streben geboren, die Weltzusammenhänge durch dasjenige zu erkennen, was man gegenwärtig Gedanken nennen kann. Solange die Menschenseele durch das Bild die Welterscheinungen vorstellt, fühlt sie sich mit diesen noch innig verbunden. Sie empfindet sich als ein Glied des Weltorganismus; sie denkt sich nicht als selbständige Wesenheit von diesem Organismus losgetrennt. Da der Gedanke in seiner Bildlosigkeit in ihr erwacht, fühlt sie die Trennung von Welt und Seele. Der Gedanke wird ihr Erzieher zur Selbständigkeit. Nun aber erlebt der Grieche den Gedanken in einer anderen Art als der gegenwärtige Mensch. Dies ist eine Tatsache, die leicht außer acht gelassen werden kann. Doch ergibt sie sich für eine echte Einsicht in das griechische Denken. Der Grieche empfindet den Gedanken, wie man gegenwärtig eine Wahrnehmung empfindet, wie man «rot» oder «gelb» empfindet. Wie man jetzt eine Farben- oder eine Tonwahrnehmung einem «Dinge» zuschreibt, so schaut der Grieche den Gedanken in und an der Welt der Dinge. Deshalb bleibt der Gedanke in dieser Zeit noch das Band, das die Seele mit der Welt verbindet. Die Loslösung der Seele von der Welt beginnt erst; sie ist noch nicht vollzogen. Die Seele erlebt zwar den Gedanken in sich; sie muß aber der Ansicht sein, daß sie ihn aus der Welt empfangen hat, daher kann sie von dem Gedankenerleben die Enthüllung der WeIträtsel erwarten. In solchem Gedankenerleben vollzieht sich die philosophische Entwickelung, die mit Pherekydes und Thales einsetzt, in Plato und Aristoteles einen Höhepunkt erreicht, und dann abflutet, bis sie in der Zeit der Begründung des Christentums ihr Ende findet. Aus den Untergründen der geistigen Entwickelung flutet das Gedankenleben in die Menschenseelen herein und erzeugt in diesen Seelen Philosophien, welche die Seelen zum Erfühlen ihrer Selbständigkeit gegenüber der äußeren Welt erziehen.
[ 10 ] In der Zeit des entstehenden Christentums setzt eine neue Epoche ein. Die Menschenseele kann nun nicht mehr den Gedanken wie eine Wahrnehmung aus der äußeren Welt empfinden. Sie fühlt ihn als Erzeugnis ihres eigenen (inneren) Wesens. Ein viel mächtigerer Impuls, als das Gedankenleben war, strahlt aus den Untergründen des geistigen Werdens in die Seele herein. Das Selbstbewußtsein erwacht erst jetzt in einer Art innerhalb der Menschheit, welche dem eigentlichen Wesen dieses Selbstbewußtseins entspricht. Was Menschen vorher erlebten, waren doch nur die Vorboten dessen, was man im tiefsten Sinne innerlich erlebtes Selbstbewußtsein nennen sollte. Man kann sich der Hoffnung hingeben, daß eine künftige Betrachtung der Geistesentwickelung die hier gemeinte Zeit diejenige des «Erwachens des Selbstbewußtseins» nennen wird. Es wird erst jetzt der Mensch im wahren Sinne des Wortes den ganzen Umfang seines Seelenlebens als «Ich» gewahr. Das ganze Gewicht dieser Tatsache wird von den philosophischen Geistern dieser Zeit mehr dunkel empfunden als deutlich gewußt. Diesen Charakter behält das philosophische Streben bis etwa zu Scotus Erigena (gest. 877 n.Chr.). Die Philosophen dieser Zeit tauchen mit dem philosophischen Denken ganz in das religiöse Vorstellen unter. Durch dieses Vorstellen sucht die Menschenseele, die sich im erwachten Selbstbewußtsein ganz auf sich gestellt sieht, das Bewußtsein ihrer Eingliederung in das Leben des Weltorganismus zu gewinnen. Der Gedanke wird ein bloßes Mittel, um die Anschauung auszudrücken, die man aus religiösen Quellen über das Verhältnis der Menschenseele zur Welt gewonnen hat. Eingebettet in diese Anschauung wächst das Gedankenleben, vom religiösen Vorstellen genährt, wie der Pflanzenkeim im Schoß der Erde, bis er aus diesem hervorbricht. In der griechischen Philosophie entfaltet das Gedankenleben seine Eigenkräfte; es führt die Menschenseele bis zum Erfühlen ihrer Selbständigkeit; dann bricht aus den Untergründen des Geisteslebens in die Menschheit herein, was wesentlich anderer Art ist als das Gedankenleben. Was die Seele erfüllt mit neuem inneren Erleben, was sie gewahr werden läßt, daß sie eine eigene, auf ihrem inneren Schwerpunkt ruhende Welt ist. Das Selbstbewußtsein wird zunächst erlebt, noch nicht gedanklich erfaßt. Der Gedanke entwickelt sich weiter im Verborgenen in der Wärme des religiösen Bewußtseins. So verlaufen die ersten sieben bis acht Jahrhunderte nach der Begründung des Christentums.
[ 11 ] Die nächste Epoche zeigt einen völlig anderen Charakter. Die führenden Philosophen fühlen die Kraft des Gedankenlebens wieder erwachen. Die Menschenseele hat die durch Jahrhunderte durchlebte Selbständigkeit innerlich befestigt. Sie beginnt zu suchen: was denn eigentlich ihr ureigenster Besitz ist. Sie findet, daß dies das Gedankenleben ist. Alles andere wird ihr von außen gegeben; den Gedanken erzeugt sie aus den Untergründen ihrer eigenen Wesenheit heraus, so daß sie bei diesem Erzeugen mit vollem Bewußtsein dabei ist. Der Trieb entsteht in ihr, in den Gedanken eine Erkenntnis zu gewinnen, durch die sie sich über ihr Verhältnis zur Welt aufklären kann. Wie' kann in dem Gedankenleben sich etwas aussprechen, was nicht bloß von der Seele erdacht ist? Das wird die Frage' der Philosophen dieses Zeitalters. Die Geistesströmungen des Nominalismus, des Realismus, der Scholastik, der mittelalterlichen Mystik, sie offenbaren diesen Grundcharakter der Philosophie dieses Zeitalters. Die Menschenseele versucht, das Gedankenleben auf seinen Wirklichkeitscharakter hin zu prüfen.
[ 12 ] Mit dem Ablauf dieser dritten Epoche ändert sich der Charakter des philosophischen Strebens. Das Selbstbewußtsein der Seele ist erstarkt durch die jahrhundertelange innere Arbeit, die in der Prüfung der Wirklichkeit des Gedankenlebens geleistet worden ist. Man hat gelernt, das Gedankenleben mit dem Wesen der Seele verbunden zu fühlen und in dieser Verbindung eine innere Sicherheit des Daseins zu empfinden. Wie ein mächtiger Stern leuchtet am Geisteshimmel als Wahrzeichen für diese Entwickelungsstufe das Wort «Ich denke, also bin ich», das Descartes (1596-1650) ausspricht. Man fühlt das Wesen der Seele in dem Gedankenleben strömen; und in dem Wissen von diesem Strömen vermeint man das wahre Sein der Seele selbst zu erleben. So sicher fühlt man sich innerhalb dieses im Gedankenleben erschauten Daseins, daß man zu der Überzeugung kommt, wahre Erkenntnis könne nur diejenige sein, die so erlebt wird, wie in der Seele das auf sich selbst gebaute Gedankenleben erfahren werden muß. Dies wird der Gesichtspunkt Spinozas (1632–1677). Philosophien entstehen nunmehr, welche das Weltbild so gestalten, wie es vorgestellt werden muß, wenn die durch das Gedankenleben erfaßte selbstbewußte Menschenseele in ihm den angemessenen Platz haben soll. Wie muß die Welt vorgestellt werden, damit in ihr die Menschenseele so gedacht werden kann, wie sie gedacht werden muß im Sinne dessen, was man über das Selbstbewußtsein vorzustellen hat? Das wird die Frage, welche bei unbefangener Betrachtung der Philosophie Giordano Brunos (1548 bis 1600) zugrunde liegt; und die ganz deutlich sich als diejenige ergibt, für welche Leibniz (1646-1716) die Antwort sucht.
[ 13 ] Mit Vorstellungen eines Weltbildes, die aus solcher Frage entstehen, beginnt die vierte Epoche der Entwickelung der philosophischen Weltansichten. Unsere Gegenwart bildet erst ungefähr die Mitte dieses Zeitalters. Die Ausführungen dieses Buches sollen zeigen, wie weit die philosophische Erkenntnis im Erfassen eines Weltbildes gelangt ist, innerhalb dessen die selbstbewußte Seele für sich einen solch sicheren Platz findet, daß sie ihren Sinn und ihre Bedeutung im Dasein verstehen kann. Als in der ersten Epoche des philosophischen Strebens dieses aus dem erwachten Gedankenleben seine Kräfte empfing, da erstand ihm die Hoffnung, eine Erkenntnis zu gewinnen von einer Welt, der die Menschenseele mit ihrer wahren Wesenheit angehört; mit derjenigen Wesenheit, die nicht erschöpft ist mit dem Leben, das durch den Sinnenleib seine Offenbarung findet.
[ 14 ] In der vierten Epoche setzen die aufblühenden Naturwissenschaften dem philosophischen Weltbild ein Naturbild an die Seite, das allmählich sich selbständig auf einen eigenen Boden stellt. In diesem Naturbilde findet sich mit fortschreitender Entwickelung nichts mehr von der Welt, welche das selbstbewußte Ich (die sich als selbstbewußte Wesenheit erlebende Menschenseele) in sich anerkennen muß. In der ersten Epoche beginnt die Menschenseele sich von der Außenwelt loszulösen und eine Erkenntnis zu entwickeln, welche sich dem seelischen Eigenleben zuwendet. Dieses seelische Eigenleben findet seine Kraft in dem erwachenden Gedankenelemente. In der vierten Epoche tritt ein Naturbild auf, das sich seinerseits von dem seelischen Eigenleben losgelöst hat. Es entsteht das Bestreben, die Natur so vorzustellen, daß in die Vorstellungen von ihr sich nichts von dem einmischt, was die Seele aus sich und nicht aus der Natur selbst schöpft. So findet sich in dieser Epoche die Seele mit ihrem inneren Erleben auf sich selbst zurückgewiesen. Es droht ihr, sich eingestehen zu müssen, daß alles, was sie von sich erkennen kann, auch nur für sie selbst eine Bedeutung habe und keinen Hinweis enthielte auf eine Welt, in der sie mit ihrem wahren Wesen wurzelt. Denn in dem Naturbilde kann sie von sich selbst nichts finden.
[ 15 ] Die Entwickelung des Gedankenlebens ist durch vier Epochen fortgeschritten. In der ersten wirkt der Gedanke wie eine Wahrnehmung von außen. Er stellt die erkennende Menschenseele auf sich selbst. In der zweiten hat er seine Kraft nach dieser Richtung erschöpft. Die Seele erstarkt in dem Selbsterleben ihres Eigenwesens; der Gedanke lebt im Untergrunde und verschmilzt mit der Selbsterkenntnis. Er kann nun nicht mehr wie eine Wahrnehmung von außen angesehen werden. Die Seele lernt ihn fühlen als ihr eigenes Erzeugnis. Sie muß dazu kommen, sich zu fragen: was hat dieses innere Seelenerzeugnis mit einer Außenwelt zu tun? Im Lichte dieser Frage läuft die dritte Epoche ab. Die Philosophen entwickeln ein Erkenntnisleben, das den Gedanken in bezug auf seine innere Kraft erprobt. Die philosophische Stärke dieser Epoche offenbart sich als ein Einleben in das Gedankenelement, als Kraft, den Gedanken in seinem eigenen Wesen durchzuarbeiten. Im Verlauf dieser Epoche nimmt das philosophische Leben zu in der Fähigkeit, sich des Gedankens zu bedienen. Im Beginne der vierten Epoche will das erkennende Selbstbewußtsein, von seinem Gedankenbesitze aus, ein philosophisches Weltbild gestalten. Ihm tritt das Naturbild entgegen, das von diesem Selbstbewußtsein nichts aufnehmen will. Und die selbstbewußte Seele steht vor diesem Naturbilde mit der Empfindung: wie gelange ich zu einem Weltbilde, in dem die Innenwelt mit ihrer wahren Wesenheit und die Natur zugleich sicher verankert sind? Der Impuls, der aus dieser Frage stammt, beherrscht den Philosophen mehr oder weniger bewußt die philosophische Entwickelung seit dem Beginn der vierten Epoche. Und er ist der maßgebende Impuls im philosophischen Leben der Gegenwart. In diesem Buche sollen die einzelnen Tatsachen charakterisiert werden, welche das Walten dieses Impulses offenbaren. Der erste Band des Buches wird die philosophische Entwickelung bis zur Mitte des neunzehntes Jahrhunderts darstellen; der zweite wird diese Entwickelung bis zur Gegenwart verfolgen und am Schlusse zeigen, wie die bisherige philosophische Entwickelung die Seele auf Ausblicke in ein werdendes menschliches Erkenntnisleben hinweist, durch welches die Seele ein Weltbild aus ihrem Selbstbewußtsein entfalten kann, in dem ihre eigene wahre Wesenheit zugleich mit dem Bilde der Natur, das die neuere Entwickelung gebracht hat, vorgestellt werden kann.
[ 16 ] Ein der Gegenwart entsprechender philosophischer Ausblick sollte in diesem Buche aus der geschichtlichen Entwickelung der philosophischen Weltansichten heraus entfaltet werden.
For orientation on the guidelines of the presentation
[ 1 ] If one follows the spiritual work that has been done by people in order to try to solve the riddles of the world and questions of life, the words that were recorded in Apollo's temple like a maxim always come to mind: "Know thyself". The fact that the human soul can feel a certain effect when imagining these words is the basis for understanding a world view. The nature of a living organism brings with it the necessity of feeling hunger; the nature of the human soul at a certain stage of its development produces a similar necessity. This is expressed in the need to gain a spiritual good from life which, like food, corresponds to hunger and the inner demand of the soul: "Know thyself". This feeling can seize the soul so powerfully that it must think: I am only totally human in the true sense of the word when I develop a relationship to the world within myself that has its basic character in "Know thyself". The soul can go so far as to regard this sensation as an awakening from the dream of life that it dreamed before the experience that it undergoes with this sensation.
[ 2 ] In the first period of his life, man develops in such a way that the power of memory strengthens in him, through which in later life he remembers his experiences up to a certain point in childhood. What lies before this point in time is perceived by him as a dream of life from which he has awakened. The human soul would not be what it should be if this power of memory did not grow out of the dull experience of childhood. In a similar way the human soul can think of the experience of "Know thyself" on a further level of existence. It can feel that all soul life does not correspond to its dispositions that does not awaken from the life dream through this experience.
[ 3 ] Philosophers have often emphasized that they are embarrassed when they have to say what philosophy is in the true sense of the word. What is certain, however, is that it must be seen as a special form of satisfying the human soul's need to "know thyself". And one can know about this demand just as one knows what hunger is, even though one might be embarrassed if one were to give an explanation of hunger that would satisfy everyone.
[ 4 ] A thought of this kind probably lived in J. G. Fichte's soul when he said that the kind of philosophy one chooses depends on what kind of person one is. Animated by this thought, one can approach the consideration of the attempts that have been made in the course of history to find solutions to the riddles of philosophy. In these attempts one will then find revelations of the human essence itself. For, although man seeks to silence his personal interests completely when he wants to speak as a philosopher, what the human personality can make of itself through the development of its innermost powers appears quite directly in a philosophy.
[ 5 ] From this point of view, the contemplation of philosophical achievements about the riddles of the world can arouse certain expectations. It is to be hoped that results can be gained from this consideration about the character of the development of the human soul. And the author of this book believes that such results have presented themselves to him as he has wandered through the philosophical views of the West. Four clearly distinguishable epochs in the development of the philosophical striving of mankind presented themselves to him. He had to find the differences between these epochs expressed as characteristically as one finds the differences between the species of a natural kingdom. This led him to recognize that the history of the philosophical development of mankind was proof of the existence of objective spiritual impulses, quite independent of man, which continue to develop in the course of time. And what men accomplish as philosophers appears as the revelation of the development of these impulses which rule beneath the surface of external history. The conviction suggests itself that such a result follows from the impartial observation of historical facts, like a law of nature from the observation of natural facts. The writer of this book believes that no kind of bias has led him to an arbitrary construction of historical becoming, but that the facts compel him to recognize results of the kind indicated.
[ 6 ] It turns out that the course of development of the philosophical striving of mankind allows us to distinguish epochs, each of which has a length of seven to eight centuries. In each of these epochs, a different spiritual impulse is at work beneath the surface of external history, which, as it were, radiates into human personalities and, with its own further development, brings about that of human philosophizing.
[ 7 ] How the facts support the distinction between these epochs will be shown in this book. The author wishes to let these facts speak for themselves as best he can. Here, only a few guidelines are to be prefaced, from which the consideration did not start, which has led to this book, but which have emerged as a result of this consideration.
[ 8 ] One can take the view that these guidelines are in the right place at the end of the book, since their truth only emerges from the content of what is presented. However, they should precede them as a preliminary communication because they justify the internal structure of the presentation. For although they arose for the author of the book as the result of his reflections, they were naturally before the presentation in his mind and were decisive for it. For the reader, however, it can be significant not only to learn at the end of a book why the author depicts in a certain way, but to be able to form an opinion about this way from the point of view of the depictor while reading. However, only that which is relevant to the internal structure of the explanations shall be communicated here.
[ 9 ] The first epoch in the development of philosophical views begins in ancient Greece. It can be clearly traced back historically to Pherekydes of Syros and Thales of Miletus. It ends with the times in which Christianity was founded. The spiritual striving of mankind in this epoch shows a substantially different character than in earlier times. It is the epoch of the awakening life of thought. Before that, the human soul lived in figurative (symbolic) ideas about the world and existence. No matter how hard one might try to agree with those who would like to see the philosophical life of thought developed in pre-Greek times, one cannot do so if one looks at it impartially. And one must let genuine philosophy, appearing in the form of thought, begin in Greece. What is similar to the element of thought in Oriental and Egyptian views of the world is not a true thought, but an image, a symbol. In Greece the striving is born to recognize the connections of the world through that which at present can be called thought. As long as the human soul imagines world phenomena through the image, it still feels intimately connected with them. It feels itself to be a member of the world organism; it does not think of itself as an independent entity detached from this organism. As thought awakens in her in its imagelessness, she feels the separation of world and soul. Thought becomes its educator to independence. Now, however, the Greek experiences thought in a different way from the contemporary human being. This is a fact that can easily be disregarded. But it does provide a genuine insight into Greek thought. The Greek perceives the thought as one currently perceives a perception, as one perceives "red" or "yellow". Just as one now ascribes a perception of color or sound to a "thing", so the Greek sees the thought in and on the world of things. This is why, at this time, thought still remains the bond that connects the soul with the world. The detachment of the soul from the world is only just beginning; it is not yet complete. Although the soul experiences the thought within itself, it must be of the opinion that it has received it from the world, therefore it can expect the revelation of the riddles of the world from the experience of thought. Philosophical development, which begins with Pherekydes and Thales, reaches a climax in Plato and Aristotle, and then flows away until it comes to an end in the time of the foundation of Christianity, takes place in such an experience of thought. From the depths of spiritual development, the life of thought floods into human souls and generates philosophies in these souls which educate the souls to feel their independence from the external world.
[ 10 ] A new epoch begins in the age of emerging Christianity. The human soul can no longer experience thought as a perception from the external world. It feels it as a product of its own (inner) being. A much more powerful impulse than the life of thought radiates into the soul from the depths of spiritual becoming. Self-consciousness is only now awakening within humanity in a way that corresponds to the actual nature of this self-consciousness. What people experienced before were only the forerunners of what should be called in the deepest sense inwardly experienced self-consciousness. One can indulge in the hope that a future consideration of the development of the spirit will call the time meant here that of the "awakening of self-consciousness". It is only now that man becomes aware, in the true sense of the word, of the full extent of his soul life as "I". The full weight of this fact is more dimly felt than clearly realized by the philosophical minds of this time. Philosophical endeavor retains this character until about the time of Scotus Erigena (d. 877 AD). The philosophers of this time immersed their philosophical thinking completely in religious imagination. Through this imagination, the human soul, which in its awakened self-consciousness sees itself as entirely self-reliant, seeks to gain awareness of its integration into the life of the world organism. Thought becomes a mere means of expressing the view gained from religious sources about the relationship of the human soul to the world. Embedded in this view, the life of thought, nourished by religious imagination, grows like the plant seed in the womb of the earth until it bursts forth from it. In Greek philosophy, the life of thought unfolds its own powers; it leads the human soul to a sense of its independence; then, from the depths of the spiritual life, something of an essentially different nature than the life of thought breaks into humanity. This fills the soul with a new inner experience, which makes it realize that it is a world of its own, resting on its inner center of gravity. Self-consciousness is initially experienced, not yet grasped in thought. The thought continues to develop in secret in the warmth of religious consciousness. This is how the first seven to eight centuries after the foundation of Christianity proceeded.
[ 11 ] The next epoch shows a completely different character. The leading philosophers feel the power of the life of thought awakening again. The human soul has inwardly consolidated the independence it has lived through for centuries. It begins to search: what is actually its very own possession. It finds that this is the life of thought. Everything else is given to it from outside; it generates thought from the subsoil of its own being, so that it is fully consciously involved in this generation. The urge arises in it to gain a knowledge in the thoughts through which it can enlighten itself about its relationship to the world. How can something express itself in the life of thought that is not merely conceived by the soul? This becomes the question of the philosophers of this age. The intellectual currents of nominalism, realism, scholasticism and medieval mysticism reveal this basic character of the philosophy of this age. The human soul attempts to test the life of thought for its character of reality.
[ 12 ] With the passing of this third epoch, the character of philosophical striving changes. The self-consciousness of the soul has been strengthened by the centuries of inner work that has been done in the examination of the reality of the life of thought. One has learned to feel the thought life connected with the essence of the soul and to sense an inner security of existence in this connection. Descartes' (1596-1650) words "I think, therefore I am" shine like a mighty star in the spiritual sky as a symbol of this stage of development. One feels the essence of the soul flowing in the life of thought; and in the knowledge of this flow one believes to experience the true being of the soul itself. One feels so secure within this existence seen in the life of thought that one comes to the conviction that true knowledge can only be that which is experienced as the life of thought built upon itself must be experienced in the soul. This becomes the viewpoint of Spinoza (1632-1677). Philosophies now emerge that shape the world view as it must be imagined if the self-conscious human soul grasped through the life of thought is to have the appropriate place in it. How must the world be imagined so that the human soul can be imagined in it in the way it must be imagined in the sense of what one has to imagine about self-consciousness? This is the question that underlies the philosophy of Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) when considered impartially; and which clearly emerges as the question for which Leibniz (1646-1716) seeks the answer.
[ 13 ] The fourth epoch in the development of philosophical views of the world begins with ideas of a world view that arise from such a question. Our present day is only about the middle of this age. The remarks in this book are intended to show how far philosophical knowledge has come in grasping a world view within which the self-conscious soul finds such a secure place for itself that it can understand its meaning and significance in existence. When, in the first epoch of philosophical striving, this received its powers from the awakened life of thought, there arose for it the hope of gaining knowledge of a world to which the human soul belongs with its true essence; with that essence which is not exhausted with the life that finds its revelation through the sensory body.
[ 14 ] In the fourth epoch, the flourishing natural sciences set a view of nature alongside the philosophical worldview that gradually established its own independent ground. In this view of nature, as development progresses, there is no longer anything of the world that the self-conscious ego (the human soul experiencing itself as a self-conscious entity) must recognize in itself. In the first epoch the human soul begins to detach itself from the outer world and to develop a cognition that turns towards the soul's own life. This soul's own life finds its strength in the awakening thought element. In the fourth epoch, an image of nature emerges which, for its part, has detached itself from the soul's own life. The endeavor arises to imagine nature in such a way that nothing of what the soul draws from itself and not from nature itself interferes with the ideas of nature. Thus in this epoch the soul with its inner experience finds itself turned back upon itself. It is in danger of having to admit to itself that everything it can recognize about itself has meaning only for itself and contains no reference to a world in which it is rooted with its true nature. For it can find nothing of itself in the image of nature.
[ 15 ] The development of the life of thought has progressed through four epochs. In the first, thought acts as a perception from outside. It places the cognizing human soul upon itself. In the second, it has exhausted its power in this direction. The soul strengthens in the self-awareness of its own being; the thought lives in the underground and merges with self-knowledge. It can no longer be regarded as an external perception. The soul learns to feel it as its own product. It must come to ask itself: what does this inner soul product have to do with an outer world? The third epoch takes place in the light of this question. The philosophers develop a life of cognition that tests thought in terms of its inner power. The philosophical strength of this epoch reveals itself as a living into the thought element, as the power to work through the thought in its own essence. In the course of this epoch, philosophical life increases in its ability to make use of thought. At the beginning of the fourth epoch, the cognizing self-consciousness wants to form a philosophical view of the world from its possession of thought. It is confronted by the image of nature, which does not want to absorb anything from this self-consciousness. And the self-conscious soul stands before this image of nature with the feeling: how do I arrive at a world picture in which the inner world with its true essence and nature are both securely anchored? The impulse that stems from this question has more or less consciously dominated philosophical development since the beginning of the fourth epoch. And it is the decisive impulse in the philosophical life of the present. In this book we shall characterize the individual facts which reveal the workings of this impulse. The first volume of the book will present the philosophical development up to the middle of the nineteenth century; the second will follow this development up to the present and show at the end how the philosophical development to date points the soul towards prospects of a future human cognitive life, through which the soul can unfold a world view from its self-consciousness, in which its own true essence can be presented simultaneously with the image of nature that the more recent development has brought.
[ 16 ] A philosophical outlook corresponding to the present should be unfolded in this book from the historical development of philosophical world views.