Anthroposophy has Something to Add to Modern Sciences
GA 73
12 November 1917, Zurich
III. Anthroposophy and Natural Science
Spiritual scientific findings concerning the natural world and the human being as part of this world
For the spiritual scientist, familiarity with current and recent work in other sciences is most important. If there is anything which right away establishes the need for an anthroposophically orientated spiritual science, it is above all the relationship which this science must have to natural science.
Among the attacks against the particular science of the spirit of which I am speaking those directed against my own relationship to natural science are always of special interest to me. It is easy to understand that opposition has to arise from the natural science side against an approach which, whilst it is firmly grounded in natural science, must in almost every respect go beyond that science. It is, however, strange, and certainly of some significance for the whole position held by the science of the spirit, that I myself have been repeatedly accused in recent times of not objecting to current research findings in the natural sciences but basing myself wholly on natural science. This objection is raised by people who see themselves as representing a ‘spiritual scientific’ approach. And I think I am entitled to say that with the scientific approach presented in these lectures, one finds oneself caught, as it were, between opposition coming from the natural scientific side and opposition coming from various rather vague, mystical spiritual sides that are almost equally vociferous.
I must say, however, that for the science of the spirit which I am representing in these lectures one does not just have to confess that it is indeed a matter of necessity that one bases oneself on natural science, but also that natural science, the way it is and has to be at the present time, has achieved things that provide stimulus and support in every respect. For this we not only are but indeed must be grateful. People who are working in the science of the spirit eminently need to come to an understanding with people who are working in natural science, for in a certain respect the science of the spirit needs to have the most recent findings made in natural science as a foundation if it is not to be amateurish, vague and unclear.
This may seem strange to people who have already got to know something of this anthroposophically orientated science of the spirit. But then I may well have to say quite a few things today that may seem strange from various points of view. I would therefore ask your forgiveness, especially tonight, if I consider it necessary above all to present spiritual research findings, and my only purpose in presenting such results will be to arouse interest. To furnish proof for every detail of what I am going to say tonight would require a course taking a whole week.
We need to consider the essence of recent developments in natural science if we want to establish the right kind of relationship to it, especially as spiritual scientists. Natural science does not, in fact, owe its character to what scientists themselves say are its great virtues, but to entirely different conditions and facts. The particular character which the natural scientific way of thinking has assumed over the last four centuries, and especially in the 19th century and up to the present time, is due to the fact that quite specific tendencies and gifts have arisen in the search for knowledge in the course of human evolution.
The origins of the natural scientific way of thinking are often presented like this: Well, for thousands of years in the past people looked at things in the wrong way, especially where science is concerned, and now—perhaps I won’t use the commonly quoted phrase ‘seeing how much wiser we are today’53Goethe, J. W. (see note 49), Faust I, Faust’s servitor Wagner in ‘Night’. Tr. P. Wayne. Penguin Classics.—but let me just draw your attention to how many good, honest and upright followers of the natural scientific way of thinking do believe that humanity has now been able to arrive at the ‘truth’, at the ‘right view’ where some things are concerned, and that in earlier times people had been entirely ‘on the wrong track’.
Yet if we give some consideration to the essential nature of scientific development, we can see that it was not really the case that a sudden miracle happened in the 16th century, with people arriving at the one and only truth, but that from that century onwards quite specific gifts, tendencies and approaches to investigation arose. These tendencies, these human needs, this predilection, as I might call it, made people on the one hand focus attention on the natural world and on the other hand give their knowledge of that world the character which we must so greatly admire today, especially if we base ourselves on the science of the spirit.
One of the truly outstanding gifts to arise was the ability to observe tangible physical objects very accurately. Another tendency went hand in hand with this predilection and gift, and this was to give tangible, physical things preferential and indeed exclusive value, thinking that anything which went beyond this must inevitably take human beings into spheres that were somehow forbidden, spheres of vague fantasies, or, in short, into an abyss in their search for knowledge.
This is particularly evident if we consider the efforts made to make the human being himself an object of scientific study. These efforts went in the direction of applying the forces and laws that apply in the natural world outside the human being to the human being himself, that is, to see him purely as part of the natural world, the kind of creature that has shown itself to the scientific eye in more recent times. The triumphant progress of natural science extends not only to the natural, physical aspect of the human being but also to efforts somehow to study the human psyche, using scientific methods, and indeed to bring this, too, as close as possible to something governed by the laws of nature. And I would say we can see pride and satisfaction when a modern psychologist discovers that an irrefutable law of nature can also be applied, he thinks, to the inner life of man. I am speaking of rather extreme situations that go in this direction because I really want to make my point.
Someone who still takes the point of view that the human psyche is an entity in itself will of course also think that this human psyche, complete in itself, can come to expression through the power of will impulses—we’ll consider freedom or the lack of it the day after tomorrow—using the organism. The idea that the psyche is the primal source of energy, as it were, for the movement and actions of the organism lives strongly in some minds even today.
People who think that they should think in purely natural scientific terms say to themselves, on the other hand: In the 19th century natural science arrived at one of its most significant laws, the law of the constancy or conservation of energy. This says that energies are converted in such a way that nothing new can arise in the system of energies, and nothing can in any way intervene in this system unless it is already part of it. If, it is said, the soul were able to set the organism in motion, it would need to develop the necessary energy. This would then have to be added to the energies the organism already has from food intake and other ways of relating to the world around it. The soul would have to be a source of energy, as it were; energy would have to come out of nothing, so to say, but the law of conservation of energy only permits energies the human organism takes in with food and the like to be converted to energy. A movement or the development of body heat thus cannot be anything but the conversion of food energies and other forms of energy that have been taken in from outside. Conflict thus arises with this law of the conservation of energy, which has played such a significant role in scientific developments during the 19th century, when one comes up against the idea that the soul can be the source and origin of some form of energy.
People were really pleased to have experimental proof that a ‘reservoir of energy’ capable of intervening in the process of energy conversion did exist in the soul. The experiments the well-known biologist Rubner54Rubner, Max (1854–1932). Die Gesetze des Energieverbrauchs beider Ernährung, Vienna 1902. did in this field with animals, and the continuation of them with human beings by Atwater55Atwater, W.O. ‘Neue Versuche über Stoff- und Kraftwechsel im menschlichen Koerper’ in Ergebnisse der Physiologie Bd 3.1904. S. 497-622. are regarded with some satisfaction by psychologists to this day, I would say. Rubner showed that the heat energies and the kinetic energies animals produce are, according to the measurements made, nothing but the converted energies of food they have taken in, with nothing coming from a psyche. Atwater extended these experiments to human beings, selecting subjects who we might think should be able to do even better—people doing mental work, physical work, at rest, or developing inner energies. He was able to show that up to a certain percentage—always important in experiments—nothing that comes from inside the human organism derives from a reservoir of energies in the soul, and that the energies available had been converted from energies the human organism had to take in first. Psychologists like Ebbinghaus56Ebbinghaus Hermann (1850–1909), German experimental psychologist. Abriss der Psychologie, 2. Aufl. Leipzig 1909, I. Kapitel ‘Allgemeine Anschauungen’. also stated, with some satisfaction, that there was no question of any form of psychology being in conflict with the law of conservation of energy.
Hundreds of other examples could be added, from many different points of view. They would show you how significant and characteristic the triumphant progress of the natural scientific way of thinking has become, even in our culture in general. It is thus easy to see why this triumphant progress, as we may call it, is still relatively recent and does not want to be held back at any point by something else, like the science of the spirit, for instance, and why it still has all kinds of tendencies—speak ‘prejudices’ perhaps—with regard to this that are extraordinarily difficult to deal with. If the necessity did not arise of its own accord from natural science itself for the science of the spirit to develop from it in its own way—as the child must of necessity grow to be an adult—it would probably still be a very, very long time before the science of the spirit would find anyone in the world of science prepared even just to listen when it comes up in one place or another.
No I have to make some critical comments my starting point today. One does, of course, always have to consider individual aspects, for I do not want to talk in abstract terms. Quite generally, I do not want to give general characteristics today but rather start with specific instances and use these to make my point.
If we review the character and the way of thinking and forming ideas which the natural sciences have assumed in more recent times, we have to say that this is above all ruled by the idea that the things we learn from nature must somehow come from somewhere that is separate from the human being. I’ll not go into a philosophical discussion of this; but there is a borderline issue we must consider briefly. Not that I would consider it to be of quite specific significance for natural scientists today, nor do many natural scientists enter into discussion of this issue; no, the reason is that their desire for knowledge is going in that direction, unconsciously so, in a way, and can only be judged if we consider it with regard to its movement in this direction, or to this goal.
Let me take up an idea which no doubt originated in philosophy but lurks in many people’s minds, and that is the idea of ‘things in themselves’. The philosophical question in the Kantian or some other sense will of course be of little interest to natural scientists. But the whole direction, the whole endeavour in natural scientific thinking shows a tendency to go towards this ‘things in themselves’ idea. Irrespective of whether one is basing oneself on the earlier atomic theory, or on or modern theory of ions, of electrons, whether one takes one standpoint or another in biology, people will of course say from the very beginning that they merely wanted to know the ‘laws of phenomena’, leaving the ‘things in themselves’ to the philosophers, but the way in which the phenomena are approached, how they are in fact investigated, is based on the premise that there is some ‘thing in itself behind the phenomena and that if one were able to go more deeply into the region made accessible by means of microscopy, let us say, or other scientific methods, one would come closer and closer to such a ‘thing in itself’.
This notion gives natural scientific thinking its direction, at least at an unconscious level, for if you assume a world of atoms, for instance, or assume that ether waves lie behind the tapestry of colours and nuances of light that surrounds us, you are of course thinking that these ether waves belong to a sphere of the ‘thing in itself,’ as it were. Eduard von Hartmann, the philosopher of the unconscious mind who wanted to found a natural philosophy, actually made it a challenge, saying that the world of atoms and the like, or of forces behind the things we perceive through the senses, must be accepted by scientists as something on a par with the ‘thing in itself.’
For a scientist working in anthroposophically orientated spiritual science this search for a ‘thing in itself’ behind phenomena, this whole trend—I am now not speaking of philosophical hypotheses but of this trend in natural science—is analogous to an attempt to see what is behind a mirror when one sees various images in it. It is as if one were walking round to the back of the mirror to see where the images have their origin. That origin does not lie behind the mirror, however. It is in front of the mirror, where we are standing. We are in the region where the images have their origin,57Eckermann reported Goethe’s views on the natural scientific thinking to which the lecture refers as follows. ‘But it is not usually enough for people to see the archetypal phenomenon; they think it must go further than this and are like children who, having looked in a mirror, immediately turn it round to see what is on the other side.’ Johann Peter Eckermann, Gespräche mit Goethe in den letzten Jahren seines Lebens, zweiter Teil, Gespräch vom 18. 2. 1829. and we would fall into the most incredible delusion to think we should reach into the back, behind the mirror, to find something that would be the source of the images. It may sound grotesque and be unexpected, but the ideas and concepts of natural science are based on the illusion that one has to reach behind the mirror. The ‘thing in itself’ is behind the mirror if one thus deludes oneself. But in reality it is not there.
Why is that so? It is so because as human beings we are not merely in an outer material world behind which there is a ‘thing in itself’, but right in the midst of everything on which this world is founded. It is just that not all of it comes to our conscious awareness. We are right in the midst of it! And analysing the phenomena of the natural world outside will not show us the origins, just as you cannot perceive the true nature of a person, get to know this mirror image as a physical human being, by analysing the mirror image of that person. Analysing the phenomena does not give insight into their essential nature. Instead we must intensively, if I may put it like this, go beyond the level at which our conscious mind works in everyday life. And this is done by the methods I have characterized in my first lecture here.
Our ordinary, everyday waking consciousness serves merely to develop the conceptual tools we need to put the phenomena in some order and system, establishing the laws’. To go beyond this, the conscious mind must first be transformed, developing powers that lie dormant in it. Then the imaginative, inspired and intuitive perception which I have tried to characterize as perceptive vision, perception in images, must arise from the depths of that conscious mind—nothing nebulous, of course, but in the strictly scientific sense.
We would never be able to learn something about the nature, the physical nature, of the human being by looking at a mirror image unless we also had self-awareness. We must therefore strongly feel ourselves to be physical human beings, we have to get a feeling for ourselves and know that it is I myself who is standing in front of that mirror. In the same way we cannot arrive at the essential nature of natural phenomena unless our inner life, which is right in the midst of those phenomena, grows so strong that it gains the ability to perceive things in a way that is different from ordinary waking consciousness. With regard to this perceptive awareness, perception in images, and so on, I would refer you to my last-but-one book.58Steiner R. The Riddle of Man (note 3). I would just say that, in principle, it is not a matter of a new organ in physical terms, but of developing a real ability to perceive purely in the soul realm, developing non-physical organs that add something new to everything the soul perceives in the world around it when in its usual waking conscious state. This is just like the newly opened eyes of someone born blind who has had an operation and now sees the world of colour of which he had only heard people tell before.
The task therefore is not to develop some kind of material hypotheses or draw conclusions concerning a ‘thing in itself and get at something that lies ‘behind the phenomena’, but to strengthen our inner faculties so that we are able to see the essence in front of the mirror. It will, of course, be a long time before such perceptive awareness will be taken seriously by greater numbers of scientists, despite the fact that I have characterized neither a miracle nor anything that is not accessible to human beings. It is something everyone can find from their own resources, though it has to be said that present-day habits of thinking, inwardly responding to things and gaining insight are an obstacle when it comes to awakening such perceptive awareness.
I would now like to give you some of the results of this perceptive awareness specifically relating to the sphere we may call ‘nature’. It will, of course, be necessary to speak of some things where it will not be easy to communicate with people who are firmly wedded to natural science. But perhaps this may be an occasion where it is permissible to speak of something personal. What I am offering here are not ideas that have come into my head, nor anything I have thought up. These are the results of years of investigations done in full accord with the more recent natural scientific developments; some of the things I am going to say—I would not have been able to formulate them like this even a short time ago.
My aim is above all to refer to things that are very real, going into detail. The theory of evolution, or ‘descent’, has had a considerable influence on scientific thinking in recent times. And it has to be said that anyone who is not an amateur in this field will know what fruit—leaving aside the shadow sides—this theory has borne for modern thinking, the whole modern way of looking at the world. Of course, if we really want to appreciate the nature of this theory we must ignore all the amateurish philosophical views into which so many scientific findings have unfortunately developed in recent times. ‘Monistic’ and other movements often arise because people know little of the form science has recently taken in the field in question. It is often grotesque to see how such efforts limp and lag behind scientific advances that can in no way be said to be in agreement with such things.
Yet when we speak of the theory of evolution, we also think of its early days, of all the great, idealistic hopes which Ernst Haeckel59Haeckel, Ernst Heinrich Philipp August (1834–1919), German naturalist [Tr.] had for it in the 1860s and 1870s—I do not wish to either overestimate nor underestimate him—and which he passed on to his students. I am not so much going to refer to the radical conclusions Ernst Haeckel arrived at in his day, though his scientific achievements are tremendous and often also positive. What I would like to mention is that even cautious investigators who have entered into the field—among them Naegeli60Naegeli, Karl Wilhelm von (1817–1891), Swiss botanist. Mechanisch-physiologische Theorie der Abstammungslehre 1884. and Gegenbaur61Gegenbaur, Karl (1826–1903), German comparative anatomist. His chief work, Comparative Anatomy, was translated into English in 1878 [Tr.].—not only became aware of the fruitful nature of this theory but also demonstrated this with reference to their involvement in recent developments in the sciences. I could give a long list of names. But something strange can also be noted if we consider the relatively brief history of the theory of evolution.
Great indeed were the hopes Haeckel and his followers had for the development of Darwinian principles in natural science.62Haeckel in The Natural History of Creation (1868). Consider the role which catchwords like ‘theory of natural selection’ and ‘survival of the fittest’ have played. Some people had such hopes for a view of the world where they might say that some vague powers full of wisdom intervening in world evolution had now been overcome. People would have to realize that powers that were like powers of pure chance meet others arising from sheer natural necessity in the developmental stages of one organism or another, resulting in selection, with the fit surviving whilst the unfit do not, and the fit thus might be said to get more and more perfect compared to the unfit that has dropped away; one should not, however, think in terms of any kind of teleological principle of purpose. To this day there are people63In the preface to Das Werden der Organismen (Jena 1916), Oscar Hertwig wrote: ‘For we would agree with Huxley that if Darwin’s hypothesis were to disappear, the theory of evolution would remain where it is. It is a lasting achievement of our century based on facts, and certainly one of its greatest.' who think they are representing modern views in saying that even if everything Darwin has presented in his theory of evolution were to disappear from this world, the progress made in disregarding ‘higher powers’, as Eduard von Hartman calls them, intervening in the purely inorganic laws of the realm of nature to let organic life arise64In System der Philosophie im Grundriss (Bad Sachsa 1907), Bd. II, Grundriss der Naturphilosophie, S. 172 & 208.—this progress cannot be undone.
Seen from a particular point of view, the thinking which has developed there, the thoughts that have come to human beings to liberate them from certain prejudices to which they used to be attached, are of particular value. But we have seen a strange thing. When Darwinism evolved, eliminating all the higher powers that were said to intervene in the evolution of organic life, Eduard von Hartmann’s book on the philosophy of the unconscious appeared in the late 1860s,651. Aufl. Berlin 1869. that is, when Darwinism was in full flower. I am not defending Hartmann, but this is simply a fact. Eduard von Hartmann was against a theory of pure chance. He said something quite different—powers giving direction, powers of a higher nature—must intervene in the lifeless, dead functions of purely inorganic natural laws if there was to be organic evolution. Selection cannot create anything new; anything new that did arise would have to arise from inner impulses; selection could only be made of things that already existed, removing anything unfit, but it did not have magical powers that would enable it gradually to let something perfect develop from something imperfect. Eduard von Hartman produced some brilliant thoughts in his refutation of Darwinism, which raised such hopes at the time, a theory of evolution in purely mechanical terms. People did not take the philosopher of the unconscious seriously because he was a philosopher and not a naturalist. They said: ‘Well, he’s an amateur and does not understand the principles of natural science; anything he has to say can be of no real value in the development of science.’ Remarks like this were used to reject the things Eduard von Hartmann had to say.
Refutations addressed to this ‘amateurish, dilettante philosopher’ were published. One, was about the unconscious from the point of view of physiology and the theory of descent, was by an anonymous author.66 Das Unbewusste vom Standpunkt der Physiologie und Deszendenz- Theorie (Berlin 1872). The second edition, this time bearing von Hartmann’s name, was published in 1877. It was a brilliant refutation of Eduard von Hartmann from the point of view of Darwinism as it then was. Oskar Schmidt,67 Schmidt criticized Eduard von Hartmann in his Die naturwissenschaftlichen Grundlagen der Philosophie des Unbewussten (Leipzig 1877), but praised the anonymous publication, saying that it had ‘fully confirmed the conviction of everyone who had not sworn an oath in favour of the unconscious that Darwinism is in the right.’ Darwin’s biographer, Haeckel himself, and others took a very sympathetic view of this refutation by an unknown, saying that it was excellent—this is more or less how we can sum up their views—that someone whom one could see, with every page read, to be firmly founded in the true scientific approach, was dealing with an amateur such as Eduard von Hartmann. This anonymous author—one dyed-in-the-wool Darwinist wrote—should just make himself known to us and we’ll regard him to be one of us! Someone else, also firmly grounded in mechanical Darwinist theory, said: ‘He has said everything I myself could say against Eduard von Hartmann’s amateurism.’ The man did say this. In short, the Darwinists made a lot of propaganda for this publication, which was soon sold out. A second edition had to be printed. This time the author gave his name—Eduard von Hartmann! From then on silence reigned among those who had previously praised the publication, and little further reference was made to it.
What follows may seem strange but I think it is all the more remarkable. One of Ernst Haeckels’ most important followers, someone who as a student lived wholly in the then current theories of evolution that arose in connection with Darwin’s name, was Oscar Hertwig.68 In Das Werden der Organismen (see note 63), Hertwig gave a long quote by E. von Hartmann. Last year, in 1916—just consider how little time has passed since Darwinian theories were in full flower—Oscar Hertwig published a book that is truly exemplary as a scientific work. The subject is how organisms evolve—a refutation of Darwin’s theory of random chance. Eduard von Hartmann is one of the people Oscar Hertwig says should be taken note of when speaking of different powers being active in the realm of organisms from those active in the inorganic world.
It certainly is strange to see that within a relatively short time someone came from among the best people who had been developing the old theory of evolution of the 1860s, 1870s and 1880s who actually refuted one of the fundamental principles of that theory. This should give some pause for thought to people who make up their own—‘monistic’—philosophies by just putting together amateurish ideas.
I now need to go into some definite issues relating not so much to the more recent theories of evolution but to theory of evolution as such. This may show you the position that has to be taken in anthroposophically orientated spiritual science. The theory of evolution is based on considering the facts and drawing the conclusion that something perfect, ‘perfect’ as we know it today, or, perhaps better, something with a more differentiated organization, has gradually evolved from something that was less perfect, less differentiated in its organization. To prove this, scientists refer not only to geology and palaeontology but also to embryology, the theory of individual development. Oscar Hertwig’s new book is exemplary in so far as it offers a theory of individual development, though he does it by making comparisons with animal embryology. All theory of evolution must begin with the development of the individual; Haeckel established his biogenetic law to show that the embryological development of an individual shows the evolutional history of the species, so that the embryonic development of higher animals goes through the morphological and physiological functions, at a particular level, of the simpler animal forms that existed earlier.69 ‘Ontogenesis, or the development of an individual, is a fast, short recapitulation of the phylogenesis, or evolution, of the species.’ Anthropogenie, 4. Aufl. Leipzig 1891, Bd I S. 64 (Evolution of Man 1874).
Strange though it may seem, however, a theory of individual development where one seeks to apply its laws to the evolution of organisms in general will not provide the answer to a very simple question. I feel I must in fact apologize for speaking of something as commonplace as this; the matter has been discussed many times, but, as we shall see, it concerns an important principle. The question is, very simply: What came first in evolution, the chicken or the egg? The chicken comes from the egg, but—the egg can only come from a chicken.
The issue is of little importance today, when any facts you investigate take you into vagueness whichever direction you take. But it does have significance if we want to form an idea of the way in which individual development relates to world evolution. For in that case it proves necessary to consider that there must have been conditions in which the ovum, that is, the basis of individual development today, was able to evolve on its own, without descent from any kind of entities that had already reached some level of perfection. As I said, I can only refer to this briefly, but anyone who considers the issue in more detail will soon find that, though commonplace, the matter is of major importance.
If one is conscientious and honest in tackling this question, the concepts natural science has developed for embryology will not prove adequate. Somehow or other one finds oneself at what I have called the ‘frontier posts of knowledge’ in my first lecture, ‘points’ where one has to develop the higher powers of awareness in images. We might even say that such questions can provide significant stimuli for the development of inner powers that may otherwise well have continued to lie dormant in us for a long time. If we pursue the matter not using the approach where one seeks to reach behind the mirror but one where we consider the cause for the phenomena to be in front of the mirror, we find, as we progress to awareness in images, that even today it would be a serious error to say that the egg develops in the chicken through the chicken or merely because the chicken is inseminated. That is how it looks on the surface, in the mirror image, we might say. But if we develop awareness in images and are able to see what is truly there, we come to realize that the egg does indeed develop and mature under the influence of powers that come not only from the cock and the hen.
A scientific view based only on what is sense-perceptible and tangible cannot lead to any view other than that the interaction between cock and hen and the processes that occur in the hen’s body lead to the development of an egg. But if you then want to arrive at views on such a matter you will arrive at rather mystical concepts—mystical in a negative sense, the kind of concepts many people work with, even Hertwig—an example being the concept of a ‘germ, rudiment or potential’.70 Concept used by Oscar Hertwig e.g. in Die Elemente der Entwicklungslehre des Menschen und der Wirbeltiere (Jena 1910), 4. Aufl. 4. Kapitel ‘Entwicklungsphysiologische Experimente’.
Speaking of such a ‘rudiment’, you can explain anything in the world by saying: Well, now it is there, previously it was not there, and the first thing to be there was, of course, the ‘rudiment’. This is about as clever as speaking of a ‘disposition’ with regard to certain diseases which only develop in some people under the same conditions and not in others. So you see, one can always push things further back in this way. Unless you try and somehow get a clear picture you will merely arrive at a term that has no real meaning and lacks clarity. ‘Rudiment’, ‘disposition’—those are the wrong kind of mystical terms that will only gain meaning if we are able to consider the reality that can be perceived in the spirit.
A mind with vision also sees all kinds of other things. Just as a blind person is able to see colours when he’s had an operation, so a mind with vision sees all kinds of other things. And in the present case these other things it is able to see make it clear to us that although today it is still an egg which develops in the hen, it arises from powers that are not in the hen but are brought to bear in the hen out of the universe. The hen’s body which surrounds the egg really only provides the native soil. The powers that configure the egg come from the cosmos; they come in from outside. Fertilization—I cannot go into the details today but they can be exactly determined—simply means that a possibility is created for the powers from the cosmos that are active in this site, giving them a reference point, as it were.
The egg which develops in the hen’s body has been developed out of the cosmos and is an image of the cosmos. If you find this inconceivable and cannot think of analogies in other fields, just think what it would be like if you wanted to ascribe the direction in which a magnetic needle is pointing purely to forces inherent in the needle. We do not do this; we ascribe it to a terrestrial effect, that is, forces that have to do with the whole earth. Forces from the environment influence the magnetic needle. Here, in the inorganic field, discoveries can be made purely on the basis of sensory perception. It will need a science made more productive by the science of the spirit to show that powers influence the egg that must be looked for not only in the ancestry but out there in the whole cosmos. Many different results, which will also prove of practical value, will be obtained once it is taken into account that essentially the knowledge we have in outer natural science, however sensual and factual, is merely an abstraction, something people rely on because they do not know of the more effective powers.
A mind with vision sees powers that go beyond individual nature influencing every insemination and embryonic development. These could be described in detail. In my small publication Human Life in the Light of Anthroposophy71 Human Life in the Light of Anthroposophy (from GA 35). Tr. S. M. K. Gandell. New York: Anthroposophic Press 1938. I refer to this method of research in another field; today I want to refer specifically to this particular field.
I truly do not feel contempt for empirical scientists, as they are now called, but admire them greatly. The results gained with the empirical approach have yielded a much richer store of human insights, I would say hundreds if not thousands of times as many human insights than the rudimentary concepts one is able to use in natural science today. When an embryologist produces facts, especially if he has been using a microscope, which has been developed to an admirable level today, a spiritual scientist following his work will say to himself: Everything the embryologist is establishing as fact may be external, sensual and factual, but when he describes how the male germ unites with the female germ, and so on, how parts of cell nuclei are repositioned so that one thing or another develops—these descriptions are extraordinarily interesting and significant—someone taking the point of view of anthroposophically orientated spiritual science sees the footsteps in all this of a comprehensive spiritual influence that simply comes to expression in the changes which are apparent to the senses. If one wanted to consider the things seen under the microscope, with all kinds of staining methods applied, to be something that stood entirely alone, something one merely had to describe to know the processes of germ cell and embryonic development, one would be like someone who goes along a road where someone else has left his footsteps and believes that those footsteps were made by inner forces in the soil and not that another person had made them. The explanation for these footprints would be quite wrong if I were to say that there are all kinds of forces down there which push the forms up from below. Instead I have to assume that someone went that way, stepping on the soil. In the same way I must consider the spiritual principle if I want to come to the real facts. The spiritual leaves its final traces, and what we see under the microscope, using staining methods, comes into existence—please forgive the expression—as if by processes of elimination.
But when a mind with vision takes hold of the matter, we also come to something else. We come to compare this process, which arose on the basis of pure empiricism, purely external experience of the facts through the senses, with something that we can only get to know of through investigations made by a mind with vision.
In the first lecture I gave an outline of what happens in human beings when they use their thinking to process sensory perceptions further, when they develop ideas. A real process occurs in the psyche, but materialistic thinkers do not consider it to be real; they limit their investigations to nerve functions. Yet once perception in images has awakened we can follow this process, which has inner reality. We cannot do so if our minds are limited to the kind of abstractions produced in modern psychology and indeed in logic—that ideas ‘connect’, are ‘reproduced’, and so on. But if we are able to develop a psychology of the kind I outlined here in my first lecture and turn the mind’s eye to this inner aspect of the way in which ideas develop and part of our feeling, this will give us something that belongs together with the discoveries our embryologist made in his field and in progressive cell development altogether. We then see in a way that is like comparing an original and its copy in a very factual way—on the one hand the inner process of forming ideas and the feeling process in the soul, and on the other hand the processes of insemination, division of the nucleus and so on, and actual cell division. We then see that the two have to do with one another—I want to put this as carefully as possible—have to do with one another in that the one represents in material form, as it were, what the other is in the sphere of soul and spirit.
Something else will also arise if we truly concentrate on this process in soul and spirit. We realize that it can only be the way it is in the human soul and spirit today, for the whole of our natural environment, with the human being within it, provides the physical body as a basis for it. If someone is truly able to see this in the spirit, the faculties that enable him truly to see the essential nature of something that belongs to the sphere of soul and spirit, will expand. We thus realize that under present-day conditions the organ which develops for forming ideas and feeling can only do so, in the way it happens today, on the condition that the whole takes place in the presence of a living human body. In its inner nature, however, the process shows itself to be one that moves back in time. Time becomes something real. It moves back in time. And you actually come to realize that what happens in us today when we think, and do part of our feeling, is indeed something which in the far, far distant past, when no such earthly environment existed, was able to develop on its own, without the human body.
This is the way—time is short, so I can only refer briefly, as it were, to the starting points for a road that goes far and wide—in which elements from the sphere of soul and spirit are related in a real way to the things that happen before our eyes in the sense-perceptible world. We then gain a very different understanding of the connection that altogether exists between sense-perceptible physical nature outside and the elements of soul and spirit that flow and billow through the world. If we then develop the things of which I have only been able to present the most elementary first beginnings, taking—if we proceed with the science of the spirit—not the external scientific approach of geology or palaeontology or Laplace’s theory but the approach based on genuine inner experience in spirit and soul, we come to states of the world that go a long way back, when it was not possible to do external, physical things, like embryonic development from a physical cell, as we know it today, but when the things that could be real at that time were in a form that belonged to spirit and soul. You look back to an element of spirit and soul that was a precursor of what happens today in the physical world perceptible to the senses.
The element of spirit and soul has withdrawn into the cosmic sphere today, as it were. It acts by the roundabout route via the living body and in a hen, let us say, if we go back to our earlier example, it causes the egg to have the density of matter which it did not need to have in the dim, distant past. However, in that dim, distant past the element of spirit and soul was able to use these powers—which one gets to know, with no need to speculate or set up hypotheses; we get to know them if we observe the inner laws of ideation and thinking from the inside—without there having to be the environment of the hen’s body, to create not a mystical ‘rudiment’ or ‘potential’, but a first thing. Later, when conditions changed, this needed to be protected by the ‘environ-body’ of the hen as it is today.
Someone working with the science of the spirit is thus on the one hand taking full account of natural science. On the other hand he has to go beyond it, beyond the things that are considered scientific today, not with speculation but with truly developed powers of insight through vision. These must replace theories and hypotheses—which are merely the outcome of speculation, thoughts that have been added—with things truly learned in the realm of the spirit. If one has advanced along this route, truly in such a way that nowhere are sins committed against facts that have been established in natural science, then the modern theory of evolution in particular will be seen in the right light.
I have to say paradoxical things at every step today, but I want to stimulate your thinking. I am exposing myself to the danger that people may hold me up to ridicule; but I want to stimulate your thinking. I merely want to say that this science of the spirit we call anthroposophy exists; it may not be accepted as yet, but it is able to offer research findings which, we believe, can be spoken of with the same scientific justification as the findings discussed in natural science that are based on sensory perceptions made with the help of microscopes and telescopes. It has to be said, not from presumption but because it is the way things are, that working with the spiritual scientific approach represented in these lectures one does not have it as easy, in many respects, as in working with natural science. So we can understand it if someone says: ‘The things he is saying are really difficult to understand.’ Comprehension will, of course, be easier if we only take note of purely factual elements, things that are immediately apparent; it is in the nature of the thing that understanding is difficult with the kind of issues I can only present briefly here. But with regard to practice, too, things are not so easy in anthroposophy. This is particularly apparent if we consider the human being as part of the natural world from its point of view, that is, not merely in theory.
As I said, I do not undervalue the theory of evolution. In fact, I believe it to be one of the most significant achievements in intellectual history. Attacks have come from people who did not understand these things particularly because in my book The Riddles of Philosophy and in other publications I made a strong case for justifying the theory of evolution. Just look in the second volume of my Riddles of Philosophy to see if I ever speak from a point of view that does not do justice to this theory of evolution. But things are not as easy in anthroposophy as they are in purely—as it is called today—empirical science. For if we consider the human being we have to say: ‘The idea that the human being, as he is in his physical form, has simply evolved from animal forms which in turn developed from lower animal forms, and so on, this idea is utterly amateurish if compared to the view taken in the science of the spirit.
If we want to consider the human being as part of the natural world from the spiritual scientific point of view, we must first of all differentiate this human being—this may seem strange, but that is how it is. Taking Goethe’s theory of metamorphosis further in a scientific way—anyone who has read my books will know that I have made special efforts in this field—one has to differentiate the human being. We cannot simply take him as a whole but have to establish a particular premise, which must, however, be a fully substantiated premise. It is this. We take the head on its own, realizing that the human being we have before us today can only be known and understood if we take the head on its own, with the rest as a kind of appendage organism—this just as an aid to understanding for the moment. The head on its own, therefore; we have to look for the descent, the origins, of this head as such. This human head—this is not entirely accurate, for the head does continue on into the trunk (this changes the situation; but after all it is only possible to speak in approximate terms about these matters). This human head, then, is indeed something with a morphology that has been transformed from other forms that lie immensely far back. We may say, therefore, that in so far as the human being has a head, he is descended from long way back. For the details I would refer you to my Occult Science and other writings. One actually finds that the entity which has gone through the transformations to make the present-day form of the human head possible must be sought much further back in time than the origins of all the animals and plants we have today. Considering the human being with regard to the head, we must therefore go back into a much earlier time.
The appended organism, as we may call it, has been added to the head—roughly speaking, for appendages existed even in early times. The head was the premise for its development. The principle which evolved, ultimately to become the human head principle, had the opportunity also to develop the remaining human organization which is close to the present-day animal body. The time when this organization evolved was also the time when general evolution had advanced so far that animals could develop.
This brings us to a strange theory of descent, though it is strange only compared to the ideas people have today. We have to say that in so far as human beings have a head they are descended from ancestors that went through a gradual transformation. In far distant times they undoubtedly had a different form from the one human beings have today, but it is really only the human head which is descended from them. It was during the time when general conditions for evolution made it possible to evolve creatures of the kind we have in the animal world today that the human being added to his human nature the elements that lie in his animal nature.
Again you have an early approach—for here, too, I can only give the elementary first beginnings—to a theory of evolution that arises if we do not believe the human head to have merely grown out of the rest of the organism, as it were, but rather that this human head is really the original part of the human being to develop, with the remaining organism added to it. It is because such an organism was added at a late stage in evolution that humanity entered into a line of evolution that may indeed be considered together with the line of evolution that was the descent of animal forms.
The discoveries made in the theory of evolution to this day provide genuine insights in this field. If one knows them really thoroughly, if one carefully—much more carefully than people are in the habit of doing in natural science today—considers also the work done in palaeontology, embryology, all the knowledge gained in the study of muscles, the investigations that can provide information on the way the human skull is built, then one is able to say to oneself: It is exactly the things not known from theory—meaning the theory modern natural scientists like Oscar Hertwig have refuted—but empirically, things that are there for us to see, which we only have to take up, letting the light that can be gained through the science of the spirit shine through them—all this offers tremendously far-reaching prospects. The modern theory of evolution has certainly served a good purpose and has not been just an aberration but on the contrary one of the most fruitful developments we have seen. In time to come it will really come into its own and prove immensely fruitful because it will cast its light incredibly far into the secrets of the universe.
If I might add something about the way I feel about the way the science of the spirit goes beyond pure and factual natural science, it is this: This theory of evolution from the second half of the 19th century is indeed the seed from which great, significant insights will come; the seed from which something will come that does not yet exist in general human awareness. And it is this which will in fact provide the best stimulus to develop a genuine philosophy, which takes its orientation from anthroposophy. This philosophy actually shows that the academic work which we think is final and conclusive and needs only be added to the facts perceived through the senses in order to explain them, that this academic approach—which we also find in a work as excellent as that by Oscar Hertwig and the works of others—does not provide real answers to our questions but only enables us to put our questions in the right way. Once they have been put in the right way they must then be answered. And the outside world will again and again provide answers if we know how to ask the right questions. If they are the right questions, the outside world will answer with the insight we gain through higher vision.
However, if I speak of a modified theory of descent, saying that we have to think of the human being the other way round, as it were, looking for his origin in the principle on which the head is based and having to make the head our starting point if we wish to understand the human being, whereas the matter is usually considered the other way round—when I say this, we must at the same time base ourselves on a genuine and true idea of the present-day human being. This brings me to another finding made in anthroposophical research relating to nature as a basis for the human being.
When people speak today of the way the soul relates to the human body, they really consider only the nervous system as the bodily ‘tool’, as it is put, though it is not a ‘tool’—we’ll be speaking about this the day after tomorrow—looking for it in the living body as a counterpart to the psyche. If you look at books on psychology today, with the first chapters always giving a kind of physiological preliminary to psychology itself, you will find that reference is really always only made to the nervous system as the ‘organ of the soul’.
Members of the audience who have heard me on a number of previous occasions will know that I’ll only rarely speak of personal things. But perhaps it is necessary this time, for I can only characterize the subject in outline. What I have to say on this is the outcome of investigations that have truly been going on for more than 30 years, taking account of everything that is relevant from physiology and related fields. Anyone with real knowledge of the findings modern physiologists and biologists have made in this field will find that they prove in every respect what I am going to tell you. To see the nervous system as something that is simply parallel to the psyche is to take a very biased view. No one has shown more clearly how biased it is than a scientist I hold in particularly high regard as one of the most outstanding psychologists, Theodor Ziehen.72 Ziehen, Theodor (1862–1950). Leitfaden der physiologischen Psychologie 15 lectures, Jena 1891, S. 146. In the 9 lecture: ‘On the other hand (compared to the “older psychology” and Kant), our discussions so far have shown that feelings of inclination and disinclination simply do not exist in such an independent form but merely occur as characteristics of inner feelings and ideas, as emotional colouring.’ He, too, speaks mainly of the nervous system in discussing some of the relationships between soul and body, soul and the nature-related basis of the human being, and therefore comes to treat the emotional life—which properly considered is just as real as the life of thinking or ideas—as an appendage to the life of ideas. Theodor Ziehen does not really manage to consider the emotional life in his psychology. It is the same with other people. They will then speak of the ‘emotional overtones of ideas’; the ideas, which have their bodily counter image in the nervous system, are ‘emotive’, they say, and one need not think of a separate bodily counterpart to the emotions.
Read the psychology of Theodor Ziehen or other books—I could give you a whole list of truly excellent works in this field. You will find that when these authors come to speak of the will, they actually have no possibility whatsoever truly to speak of the will, which is a wholly real sphere in our inner life. The will simply slips from Theodor Ziehen’s grasp as he writes about physiological and psychological things; the will is simply disputed away; it does not exist for the author; in a way it exists merely as a play of ideas. Because of the existing bias, therefore, violence is done to something we quite clearly know from experience, just as serious violence is also done to other things in such investigations.
Yet if we really consider everything that has so far been achieved in physiology, this exemplary science—though much is still open to question and questionable—if we consider all the things that merely are not seen in the right light, we come to see—I can only refer to this briefly—that the whole human organism is counterpart to the whole human soul. In my latest book, Riddles of the Soul, which is due to appear shortly, or perhaps it is out already, I discussed questions concerning the limits of ordinary science and of anthroposophy, and this includes the issue which we are considering here, though again it is only presenting results. There is nothing to be said against the notion that the life of ideas has its bodily counterpart in the first place in the nervous system, though we have to see the whole situation very differently from the way it is seen in modern science; I am going to talk about this the day after tomorrow. When we want to look for a bodily counterpart to the life of ideas, we have to look to the nervous system for this.
Not so when it comes to the emotional life! I almost hesitate to put something so far-reaching in such brief words, something I have found in investigations taking not years but decades. When we speak of the emotional life, it is not possible to look for a connection between it and the life of the nerves the way we look for a connection between the life of ideas and that of the nerves. There is a connection, but it is indirect. The emotional life—this seems almost unbelievable if one takes the biased view commonly taken in modern science—has a direct connection with what we may call the breathing rhythm in all its ramifications, and this is a connection similar in nature to that between the life of ideas and the nervous system. In the nervous system one has to go into the finest ramifications; and the same applies to the rhythmical movements that originate in the breathing rhythm and then branch and divide everywhere, also influencing the brain. Comte’s ideas on the mechanics of the human body are very interesting in this respect.73 Comte, Auguste (1798–1857), French philosopher and social theorist. Cours de philosophie positive, 6 vols, Paris 1830-42, esp. the 40th-45th lectures. The bodily counterpart of the emotional life must be sought in this rhythmical play of movements in the human being, all of them really dependent on the breathing rhythm, in rhythmical movements that also encompass the blood rhythm.
I know, ladies and gentlemen, that it must seem as if countless objections could be raised against what I have just been saying. All of them can be refuted, however. Let me draw your attention to just one of them—briefly. It would be easy to say, for instance: Well yes, the aesthetic effect of music depends on our feelings; but these feelings are aroused by sensory perception of the sounds, that is, a sensory perception of something outside, and the effect of this does of course continue on in the nervous system; so you can see—as the objection might be—that you are in error in saying that something which in its aesthetic effect is definitely dependent on our emotional life is connected with our breathing rhythm, when in fact the music is perceived by the senses and we gain this perception via the ear and the auditory nerve! This objection is illusory, for the real process is much more complex. Such things can indeed only be reached by the kind of vision that takes its orientation from the powers gained in an awareness that has vision. It is like this: In the brain, the breathing rhythm meets with the processes that occur in the nervous system. And the emotions we experience with music arise from this interaction, this encounter between the part of the breathing rhythm that extends into the life of the nerves and the structure of the nerves. The latter reacts to the breathing rhythm and this creates the feelings we have on hearing music. It is therefore possible to explain the feelings that are experienced properly if we consider the breathing rhythm, and the life of breathing altogether, to be the bodily counterpart to the life of feeling, just as we have to consider the nervous system to be the bodily counterpart to the life of ideas.
And now we come to the will impulses, to the things we do. If we examine everything people have been saying about the physiology, using the possibilities given when we are able to have awareness in vision, we find that everything which the soul experiences as our will expressed in doing has its bodily counterpart in metabolic processes. Life in the body is essentially made up of metabolic processes, breathing rhythms, and processes in the nerves; there are just two exceptions, which I’ll refer to later.
The subject gets difficult merely because a nerve must, of course, also be shown to be such that the life of nutrition or of metabolism extends into it. However, it is not the nutrition nor the metabolism in the nerve which is the bodily counterpart of the life of ideas but something entirely different. I wrote about this in my book Riddles of the Soul: in so far as the nerve depends on metabolism it merely acts as a mediator of the will process.74 See Von Seelenrätseln (note 1), Seite 156 f. The fact that one system—metabolic system, rhythmical breathing process, nervous system—extends right into another, so that the systems are not side by side in space but change on into the other or extend into each other, makes it particularly difficult to study these things. Essentially, however, it is like this: In the nerve, the basis of the life of ideas is not the fact that it is touched by rhythm, nor the fact that it is provided with food, but yet another, very different inner activity. In the finest ramifications of the breathing rhythm it is this breathing rhythm itself which forms the basis for the life of feeling, and everything specified as metabolism in the organism, down to its subtlest ramifications, is the bodily counter image of will processes.
We have now related the whole of the soul to the whole of the human body. From the point of view of anthroposophical spiritual science, which I represent, I believe—believing this in no other way than the way one normally believes things in truly strictly scientific terms—that today we need only the facts known in physiology to substantiate fully what I have just been saying. I am convinced that the empirical sciences can be progressively developed further along these lines of orientation and will then prove immensely fruitful in all directions in life. Significant new ideas can be given in medicine, psychiatry and all possible kinds of fields if we take the whole of the human soul together with the whole of the human body in this way.
The zone of the senses, as I would call it, and the life of movement drop out of the context of the human organism in two directions. Modern science is on thin ice particularly when it comes to the theory of the senses on the one hand and the theory of movement on the other. Scientists working in psychology as well as in physiology understand very little, I would say, of these two opposite poles in human nature. This is because here human beings no longer belong wholly to themselves but partly to the outside world, with the soul living out into the outside world both in the zone of the senses, in the sphere of sensory life, and in the sphere of movement life. When human beings move, their movement involves a state of balance or dynamics that integrates the individual into the sphere or moving play of forces in the outside world. And when human beings go beyond living purely in their nerves and enter into life in the zone of the senses, that is, when their souls experience themselves right into their actual sense organs, it happens that the individual actually goes beyond his own sphere. The senses are bays where outside world extends into our lives, and we shall only have a sensible theory of the senses if we take this into account. It is something that cannot be gained by following the approaches taken in natural science today.
It has not been my intention to discuss general principles or offer general characterizations, especially in describing the relationship between anthroposophy and natural science and the human being’s foundations in the natural world. Although it can be risky to do so, I have taken individual real findings and areas where results were obtained, in order to characterize how anthroposophy should be seen in relation to established natural science. We can see that prejudices and partiality will have to be overcome in the world of science before anthroposophy can be understood. Today, sensuality—I am speaking of views taken of sensual and factual things, not sensuality in the moral sense—is even more powerful than it was at the time when the whole world raised the objection to the views of Copernicus that they went against the evidence of their senses and refused to accept them. Copernicus went against the evidence of the senses, feeling compelled to establish something for the outside world perceived through the senses which the outer evidence of the senses cannot give us. In the science of the spirit we are compelled to go beyond the evidence of the senses in yet another respect. This is sure to meet with resistance many times over. In a lecture like this, one can only point the way here and there. I would ask you, however, to take this into account. It is only too easy to criticize such pointers from a fixed and established point of view. The indications I have given can of course be criticized to the nth degree; I myself would be perfectly able to raise all the objections that can be raised. On the other hand, however, you will be able to see that providing people do not want to prevent this, the truths that live in natural science can develop further so that the more profound secrets of the world may be unveiled in far-reaching revelations.
The day after tomorrow I will be speaking of the fruitfulness and significance of this for the whole of human life in its widest sense. My subject will be the practical application of this in the sphere of morality, of social and also religious life, political life, the theory of free will and other practical applications.
I had to risk getting misunderstood because I referred to individual and real findings. Many things today militate against human beings being able to rise to the regions of genuine and actual, true life in the spirit. Today people think that to be an enlightened person one has to say about the most profound question in our hearts, which is the question of immortality—this is something else I’ll be speaking about the day after tomorrow—that this cannot be judged because man’s ability to gain scientific insight does not go that far.
Fritz Mauthner, a man with a brilliant mind, has been writing about human capacities for insight in his German dictionary of philosophy. It is a stimulating work to read, for you feel you have entered a sphere where your mind goes round and round in circles without ever getting anywhere; if you think you have a quarter of a result, it is refuted and you are taken forward again, continuing to go round in circles. Mauthner, whose great merit it is to have shown how inadequate ‘accomplished knowledge’ proves to be wherever you look, even thinks that talking of the spirit was a crafty invention made by Hegel, saying more or less that Hegel infected philosophy with the concept of the spirit which we have today, and that the earlier concept of spirit was taken purely from that of the Holy Spirit.75 Literally: ‘And when Hegel had the arrogance to say that he had found the ultimate of all conceptual thought, presenting it in his head or in his system, when Hegel had infected the language of philosophy with the concept “spirit”, “nature” came to be the opposite of “spirit” ... When there is no longer contrast to nature in the human being, the mind and spirit no longer needs to “move itself’ with such effort to liberate the human being from nature. The spirit, of which no one ever knew what it was, a pale shadow of the Holy Spirit, of the decorative member of the Trinity, the spirit with which Hegel had made a final, for the time being, major attempt to drive nature out of the human being and the human being in his turn out of nature.’ Wörterbuch der Philosophie, 2. Bd., München 1910, S. 141 & 147 (Artikel ‘Natur’). He finds that the situation with many who imagine themselves to be critical and particularly enlightened minds and indeed to be ‘spirits/minds’ [the German for ‘mind’ and ‘spirit’ is the same word Geist, tr.]—perhaps they won’t put it like that themselves, for ‘spirit’ is something they do not accept; let us say therefore to be human beings who are at the pinnacle of knowledge and insight—Mauthner says that with many of them the situation is this: People want to use their rational minds and common sense to gain insight; but ‘the rational mind is a silver axe without a handle, and common sense is a golden handle without an axe’, and people somehow want to use these two imperfect things to penetrate the essential nature of the world!
People of that kind like to refer to Goethe’s comprehensive concept of nature. Fritz Mauthner also quotes Goethe, suggesting that Goethe, too, considered the human being to be wholly part of nature. Yet even in the essay on nature, which Fritz Mauthner quotes, you find that Goethe said things like this about nature: ‘It has been thinking and is always reflective’, speaking not of the human being, of course, but of nature. The kind of nature Goethe thought of—yes, that one could accept! It is something different from the nature which generally is the subject of natural science today. If we then also consider what Goethe said to Schiller: ‘If my natural laws are supposed to be ideas then I see my ideas before my own eyes’,76 In conversation with Schiller in July 1794. Goethe wrote about this in an essay entitled ‘Glücklichs Ereignis’ in Naturwissenschaftliche Schriften (scientific writings, see note 10). we can find naturalism acceptable in that spirit, for it’s a naturalism that definitely does not exclude the science of the spirit but includes it. I believe that if what Goethe intended for the grand design of his theory of metamorphosis, which he developed to a high degree, but only in its elements, is taken further, developed and taken beyond into the realm of the spirit, it will be a real basis for a true science of the spirit with an anthroposophical orientation.
I know that what I have said today about the origins of man and the relationship between the human soul and body is in harmony with the Goethean approach, though the Goethean approach has been taken forward into our time and made scientific.
When people who seem to be enlightened in their criticism and refuse to accept any kind of genuine spiritual insight think they can refer to Goethe, one does have to say to them: Consider Goethe’s approach at its deepest level. What you think you find in him, and also have in you, is described in the words Goethe directed to another scientist, a man of considerable merit, who had written:
Into inner nature
No mind that has been created can ever enter,...
Happy is he to whom
She shows but her outermost shell.77 From Albrecht von Haller’s didactic poem ‘Die Falschheit menschlicher Tugenden’ (1730), verse 289 f.
Goethe responded:
I have heard this repeated for 60 years,
I curse it, though only in secret; ...
Nature has neither kernel nor shell,
She is everything at one and the same time;
Examine yourself most of all
If you be kernel or shell!78In response to von Haller’s didactic poem, title ‘ Allerdings. Dem Physiker’(1820).
If the human being develops his kernel or core in this Goethean spirit, he will also penetrate—even if it takes infinitely long, serious and honest investigative labour—to the core, the essence of nature. For this does come to expression in the human being. Seen rightly, it is this and nothing else which is reflected in the human being. Spirit is nothing else but nature’s flower and fruit. In a certain respect nature is the root of the spirit.
That is indeed a truly Goethean approach! The science of the spirit will have to develop it scientifically.
Questions and answers
Following the lecture given in Zurich on 12 November 1917
Question. If conscious awareness correlates with death, what is the situation with animals, which also die, though one has to assume that conscious awareness is in all circumstances different from the way it is in humans?
When I am going to talk about practical aspects the day after tomorrow, I also intend—though again and again I hesitate to do so—to give brief consideration to various questions relating to a concept that is widely used today, the concept of the ‘unconscious’. This does of course also play a major role in psychoanalysis, a method that is well known here in Zurich. Important and indeed crucial questions arise in this field, and the day after tomorrow we will see, or least lightly touch on, how the attempts made in psychoanalysis to answer these crucial questions relate to the questions themselves. Today I will merely take up the idea of the unconscious, doing so with reference to your question. Eduard von Hartmann made the ‘unconscious mind’ a philosophical term. He stated the basis of existence to be firstly the natural world, secondly the conscious mind, which, however, must always be grounded in nature, and the unconscious mind, which is wholly non-physical but, of course, unconscious.
The position is, however, that in the science of the spirit one does not know what to do with the idea of the ‘unconscious’ as such. ‘Unconscious mind’ is about the same in spiritual science as ‘headless human being’ in the natural realm. It is certainly possible to think of ‘mind’ in abstract terms as being without conscious awareness, just as we can think away the head. We can make a drawing of a headless organism.
There are actually people who suffer from hysterical partial blindness, that is, their blindness is not organic but hysterical, who suffer from the defect that when they walk in the street they see only the bodies of people and never see anyone’s head. There are such people with this specific form of hysterical illness. They see only the body and no head, that is, nothing but headless people. You see, for some people, and they are exceptional, the evidence of their eyes would be that one might think human reality to be such that people had no heads. But of course that is not the reality. Thus the ‘unconscious mind’ is not real and can never be real. We’ll talk about what follows from this the day after tomorrow.
We now come to the question you asked. Animals as such certainly do not have human minds, but they do have conscious awareness. Earlier on today I had occasion to say that things are not as easy, as a rule, in the science of the spirit as they are in today’s established science, where things are considered more in terms of concepts rather than reality. Even when it comes to thinking, we have to proceed in a different way in the science of the spirit than one is generally used to today. Thus we read in our physics books that solids are impenetrable, meaning that if you have a solid at a point in space, no other body can be in that space. In the science of the spirit we cannot accept this definition as it stands but have to say, from this different point of view: A solid body or a life form which occupies a space to such effect that no other body or life form can occupy that space at the same time, is in fact impenetrable. Something given as a definition, if you like, simply changes into a postulate or something similar for the spiritual scientist.
It has to be clearly understood that animals may not have human minds but they do have conscious awareness. The point is that with our usual habit of thinking today we think that death equals death. People die, animals die, and plants, too, are allowed to die. The matter is not as simple as that when it comes to the science of the spirit. The fact that the concept is the same may not mean that the reality is also the same. Seen from an inner point of view, in its reality, human death is something very different from the death of animals. This is how we look at things in real terms! And to speak of the death of plants carries about as much meaning in the science of the spirit as if we were to speak of the death of a clock, which also ‘dies on us’ at some point; I think you’ll agree that it can die on us. This would have to come to an end, therefore. That is not the concept of death. The concept of death includes many things that make human death into something very different.
We need to consider the following. Essentially the conscious awareness of animals is such that the things which human beings send into the zone of the senses, which I mentioned earlier today, and there experience separately, are not experienced separately in the zone of the senses by animals. The things animals experience in the zone of the senses are of the same kind as the things they have as their life of ideas. That strict separation between sensory perception and idea which we can make for the human being, cannot justifiably be made for animals. This can be seen directly if the mind has developed vision; on the other hand you can also see it in the anatomy and physiology. Let me just remind you that the animal eye, for example, is inwardly organized in a completely different way than the human eye. In humans, certain elements of the eye are taken back into the internal organization, more into the organization of the nerves; in animals they extend into the eye. You will find a pecten, or marsupium, falciform process, in some animals, physical anatomical structures that may be said to show how the vital principle enters into the zone of the senses in animals. In humans this vital principle withdraws. Human beings thus experience the presence of their soul in such a way in the zone of the senses—please take careful account of this—that they experience something very different here than animals do. This experience which humans have in the zone of the senses, which develops further into image-based, inspired and intuitive awareness and then again continues on in the life of ideas and of memory—this experience in the zone of the senses gives the human mind a very different colouring, if I may put it like this, than is found in the conscious awareness of animals.
It is altogether necessary to revise many concepts. If you ask someone today which ideas are the most spiritual, being least connected with the physical body as a basis, I think very many people will agree when you say that the most philosophical ideas are the most spiritual! You see, from the point of view of spiritual science it is the philosophical ideas that are most abstract, and mathematical ideas, too, which are more than any other bound to the physical body. If there were only philosophical ideas we could be absolute materialists; these ideas are really purely physical and only have significance between birth and death. Something which people generally consider to be most spiritual is solidly founded in the physical world and in the physical body.
What matters, however, is that humans, being endowed with souls, are involved in the life of the senses in such a way that here, where the outside natural world extends into them rather like a bay, because vitality has withdrawn, they are already experiencing death all the time. In so far as this zone of the senses is inwardly reflected, the result, the conscious result of this zone, penetrates the inner life with what I have called ‘atomistic’ death.
What I mean is this. The death phenomenon is blended into life in the zone of the senses in human beings, and this makes it justifiable to speak of death in conjunction with conscious awareness in their case. In animals we have to connect the gradual fading of reproductive powers with what exists as conscious awareness. Death comes for the animal when the reproductive powers have gone; in humans, the fact that the death phenomenon comes in later has been an additional gain which does not exist for any animal. Here the human being has quite a different basis.
What I would really like to stress is that we only gain the right insight into the situation between birth and death if we connect the specific nature of human conscious awareness, which has to do with that special experience in the zone of the senses, with the much more vital experience which animals have in the zone of the senses. Animal awareness does not have that added element, if I may put it like that, which is forever bringing about death in the human conscious mind.
Question. It is possible to say something from the point of view of spiritual science about the concept of entropy in modern physics?
Concerning the modern concept of entropy one has to say first of all that anything covered by this concept is above all merely abstracted from the view taken in inorganic natural science. If we define the term by saying that the final state of present evolution will come because more and more heat remains when mechanical energy is converted to heat energy, so that ultimately the state of the world can only be a state of heat, this is an abstraction taken wholly from the laws of the inorganic world. There can be no objection to this in itself from the point of view of spiritual science. People who follow the entropy idea know that in postulating this end state one also assumes there to have been an initial state; both logically and scientifically it is necessary to assume an initial state if one then lets everything drift towards such a heat death.
From the point of view of spiritual science, the situation looks like this. Again I am immediately considering something real. In the first place, the observations made in the science of the spirit do not connect at all with an idea which is widely accepted in speculations on inorganic nature, and that is the idea of the dissipation of energies, with people always thinking that the dissipation of energies may go on to infinity. Speaking of energies in terms of modern science, I thus always think of something that goes out into infinity. On the basis of experience gained in the science of the spirit, we cannot do anything with this idea, for from the point of view of this science, and considering their morphogeny, all energies prove to be elastic. This means that when they spread out, they do not dissipate into infinity but only as far as a certain limit from which they then return into themselves. This may, however, take such a long time that it has no immediate relevance for the earth period that lies directly ahead. In the science of the spirit one does indeed have to realize that the concept of dissipation into infinity is nebulous and that any form of energy that spreads does not dissipate into infinity but returns to itself. Applying this concept in the field of entropy, we have a final state which is the polar opposite, so that the dissipating energies may come back to themselves again, as it were. This, then, is one point.
The other is the following. If you look at my Occult Science you’ll find that this state, which I refer to by the technical term ‘Saturn state’ is indeed shown to be entirely a state of heat. This on the basis of a system of spiritual observation which is a more developed form of what I have today been presenting in its elementary form. I go back and by spiritual scientific methods arrive at an initial state—which is not constructed but seen. The whole of evolution which follows arises from this heat state. When people arrive at an end state that is a heat state with their idea of entropy, this is an end state which I have to take as an initial state. The consequence is that there must then be a new beginning, starting from this. So there is no ‘beginning and end’, for beginning and end are merely a link in a sequence of evolution. The end state, when reached, would thus be merely the starting point for continuing evolution.
Question. Wouldn't it be possible that you could let the human being evolve as a simple organism in such a way that he does not arise first as a head principle, with an appendage added later? Modern scientists also work with very long time spans and an infinitely long period of evolution, and I think that with this it would be just as possible to have the human being arise as a uniform organism.
When one is dealing with such matters in a general way it will of course always be possible to say the kind of thing which the gentleman has just said. I would stress that today my aim has been to present positive and real findings made in anthroposophically orientated spiritual science, that is, to give individual examples of positive findings. One of them is indeed that if we do not want to consider the human being as solely part of the natural world, in a theoretical way—and this is what today’s lecture was about—he cannot be understood if we use the approach that is generally accepted today. The human being is of course also seen as a ‘uniform entity’ if one sees him as a head principle with appendage—I did say I was presenting this only in approximate terms. What matters is where we look for the starting point for human evolution and not if we treat the human being as a ‘uniform entity’, that is, what we look for further back in time. If we go further back in time in looking for the principle which today appears in metamorphosed form as the head, this makes the human being as an entity in the natural world different from the way he is when we use the theory of evolution to place him in world evolution in the way it is done with today’s banal Darwinism, a banal theory of descent.
It is not a matter of long time spans. Present-day hypotheses make these, too, hypothetical. Time can only have significance in an explanation if we are, as it were, configuring the before and after out of a real situation, and not simply postulating an evolutional sequence and bringing in time as something external. People presenting the theory of descent actually say that time is available to an unlimited degree. The question is, however, if anything that is available to us for such a thought actually also plays the same role in real terms when we consider the human being in absolutely real terms.
Reality organizes itself in such a way that the element I have called an appendage—the term is, of course, approximate—proves to be more recent in the process of evolution, with the head organism the earlier one. Time configures itself out of this. The lineage of the head organism goes back to far earlier times than something which is younger. It truly is a matter of having to make sure that our thinking must be wholly real in the field of spiritual science. Today I would emphasize once again that we cannot advance in the science of the spirit in any other way but by being able to relate to reality in a completely different way than is done in what is called empirical science today, a science which I would not underestimate. No one will be able to accuse me of underestimating it if they read my books. But one has to relate to reality in a very different and very real way.
Answering a question the last time I was here, I said that our ideas must be much more real. We'll also come back to this need for thinking in real terms when I speak about practical human issues and matters concerning the human psyche the day after tomorrow. Thinking in real terms means that with every idea we consider we are aware how far this idea relates to reality. You see, in abstract terms a rose I have before me is a real thing; and we may take it to be real. For a thinker whose concepts are fully connected with reality the concept of the rose can exist in no other way but that he is aware that in itself this rose is something abstract; in real terms it can only exist on a rose bush, and this in turn only in connection with the whole earth, and so on. A spiritual investigator will thus not present something as an isolated idea when in reality it is connected with something else but can be artificially taken out of this context. In pursuing his ideas, a spiritual investigator will thus always be aware of the degree to which the inner, substantial nature of ideas takes him into the real world. Here is another example, a paradox: you put a cell nucleus under the microscope to study it. You are studying it in isolation from everything that goes with it. A spiritual investigator will be fully aware of this; he knows that there is a difference if I look at a cell nucleus or a small animal under the microscope. I see the animal in its wholeness. Looking at a cell nucleus, however, I am not seeing something that is as real as that small animal, which does not grow larger and is thus a whole.
Having thus inwardly always the reality-character of the life of ideas in mind—that is one of the first preconditions for conscious awareness in vision. I made this clear in my book The Riddle of Man, published two years ago. This needs to be taken into account with such a question. I therefore said that the 19th century scientific theory of evolution has considerable merits to this day. But the issue is not dealt with in sufficiently real terms. If we want to study human evolution, it is not without significance where we start with this in the human being. It is not a valid objection, for instance, to say: ‘Here I have a life form; in its present form this life form has special climbing feet.’ There are life forms which in their present form—please forgive me for comparing a small creature with the human being, but we are in the field of science, and so it does not matter—so there are tiny creatures, lice—please forgive the rudeness—that develop special climbing feet. These feet are a product of later evolution. The original creature did not have them. They arose from adaptation to later conditions. It is important to realize that the original creature, living in different conditions, did not have such feet. This species of louse developed special climbing feet under later conditions. Many examples could be given. It is important, therefore, to see the real situation. Forgive me if I now move on to the human being. It is important to realize that the original form has the potential which in direct descent, in direct continuance, leads to the head organ, and that everything else is something acquired later. That is the real situation. And if we do not consider the human being in this way, we cannot understand him in the context of the whole evolution of nature.
Of course I can only refer to these things briefly. As I said, I’d have to give a long course if I were to give you all the details. Anthroposophy is still evolving today, and please do not consider it silly of me to say that it does not yet feel right to present anthroposophy in fully established courses. It needs to be done in form of suggestions made in individual lectures, and all one can do is refer to one thing or another. Because of this we have this imperfection which is the only possible thing in speaking like this. The things I have said, however, no more go against the view that the human being evolves as a uniform entity, than the evolution of lice that do not yet have feet to climb with into lice that do have them speaks against this being the evolution of a uniform entity. It is thus a matter of characterizing the evolutionary process, the special aspect of it. This is what matters in the present case.
Geisteswissenschaftliche Ergebnisse Über Die Natur Und Den Menschen Als Naturwesen
Zu den für den Geisteswissenschafter selbst bedeutsamsten Beziehungen zu anderen wissenschaftlichen Strömungen gehört die Beziehung zur naturwissenschaftlichen Forschung der Gegenwart und der neueren Zeit überhaupt. Wenn irgend etwas von vornherein die Notwendigkeit der anthroposophisch orientierten Geisteswissenschaft klarlegen kann, so ist dies ganz besonders das Verhältnis zur Naturwissenschaft, in das sie sich selber stellen muß.
Unter den Angriffen, welche diese hier gemeinte Geisteswissenschaft gefunden hat, sind insbesondere diejenigen, welche sich gegen meine eigene Stellung zur Naturwissenschaft der Gegenwart richten, wenigstens für mich selbst von einigem weitergehenden Interesse. Daß schließlich Angriffe, Gegnerschaften von seiten der Naturwissenschaft selbst gegen eine Geistesrichtung erwachsen, die zwar streng auf dem Boden der Naturwissenschaft steht, aber doch in fast allen Dingen über die Naturwissenschaft hinausgehen muß, das ist ja ganz begreiflich. Aber merkwürdig und für die ganze Stellung der Geisteswissenschaft doch von einer gewissen Bedeutung, ist, daß mir selbst gerade in der letzten Zeit immer wieder und wiederum der Vorwurf gemacht wird, daß ich nicht ablehnend der naturwissenschaftlichen Forschung der Gegenwart gegenüberstehe, sondern im Gegenteil, daß ich voll auf diesem Boden stehe. Dieser Vorwurf wird mir von vermeintlichen Bekennern einer «geisteswissenschaftlichen» Richtung gemacht. Und man darf schon sagen: mit derjenigen wissenschaftlichen Richtung, die in diesen Vorträgen zutage tritt, ist man gewissermaßen eingeklemmt zwischen den Gegnerschaften, die von der Naturwissenschaft herkommen, und den Gegnerschaften, die von irgendwelchen unklaren, mystischen, spirituellen Seiten sich fast ebenso stark geltend machen.
Nun muß ich sagen, daß die Geisteswissenschaft, wie ich sie hier in diesen Vorträgen zu vertreten habe, nicht nur das Bekenntnis ablegen muß, in die Notwendigkeit versetzt zu sein, anzuknüpfen an die Naturwissenschaft, sondern daß sie sich auch dazu bekennen muß, daß sie, so wie sie in der Gegenwart notwendig ist und auftreten muß, den naturwissenschaftlichen Errungenschaften Anregung, Förderung in jeder Beziehung nicht nur zu danken hat, sondern zu danken haben muß. Denn gerade die Geisteswissenschaft hat, wenn sie nicht dilettantisch, laienhaft, unklar bleiben will, eine Auseinandersetzung mit der Naturwissenschaft im eminentesten Sinne notwendig, weil sie gerade aufbauen muß in einer gewissen Beziehung, wie wir das heute sehen werden, auf den neuesten Ergebnissen der Naturwissenschaft.
Das mag allerdings denjenigen, die mancherlei schon von dieser anthroposophisch orientierten Geisteswissenschaft kennen, paradox erscheinen. Allein ich werde gerade im Laufe des heutigen Vortrags nach vielleicht fast allen Seiten hin mancherlei Paradoxes zu sagen haben. Und von vornherein möchte ich insbesondere am heutigen Abend gewissermaßen um Entschuldigung bitten, daß ich vorzugsweise genötigt sein werde, Ergebnisse der Geistesforschung vorzubringen, Ergebnisse, durch deren Mitteilung ich auch nichts weiter will, als anregen. Um das, was heute zu sagen ist, in allem einzelnen zu belegen, zu beweisen, dazu würde wohl ein wochenlanger Kursus notwendig sein.
Die naturwissenschaftliche Entwickelung der neueren Zeit muß man in ihrer Wesenheit ins Auge fassen, wenn man ein richtiges Verhältnis gerade als Geisteswissenschafter zu ihr gewinnen will. Diese naturwissenschaftliche Richtung verdankt ihr Gepräge eigentlich keineswegs dem, was sie selbst sich als ihre großen Vorzüge zuschreibt, sondern ganz anderen Voraussetzungen, ganz anderen Tatsachen. Der eigentümliche Charakter, den die naturwissenschaftliche Vorstellungsart und Denkweise durch die letzten vier Jahrhunderte und insbesondere im 19. Jahrhundert und bis zu unserer Gegenwart angenommen hat, beruht darauf, daß im Lauf der geschichtlichen Menschheitsentwickelung ganz bestimmte Erkenntnisneigungen, ganz bestimmte Erkenntnisbegabungen bei den Menschen aufgetreten sind.
Man stellt dieses Heraufkommen der naturwissenschaftlichen Denkweise oftmals so dar: Nun ja, durch Jahrtausende in früheren Zeiten seien eben die Menschen gerade auf dem Boden der Naturwissenschaft auf Irrpfaden gegangen; und nun, ich will nicht den trivialen Ausdruck gebrauchen, der so oft gesagt wird: Und nun haben wir es so herrlich weit gebracht! -, sondern ich will nur darauf aufmerksam machen, wie gute, ehrliche, aufrichtige Bekenner naturwissenschaftlicher Vorstellungsart doch glauben, daß es sich halt einmal für die Menschheit ergeben habe, nun in gewissen Dingen zur «Wahrheit», zur «richtigen Erkenntnis» zu kommen, während frühere Zeiten «auf Irrpfaden gewandelt» haben.
Allein, wenn man etwas in das Wesen naturwissenschaftlicher Entwickelung hineinblickt, so wird man sehen, daß nicht so sehr das Wunder eingetreten ist, daß plötzlich seit dem 16. Jahrhundert die Menschheit auf die alleingültige Wahrheit gekommen ist, sondern daß seit diesem 16. Jahrhundert eben ganz bestimmte Begabungen, ganz bestimmte Neigungen und Richtungen für den Erkenntnisweg aufgetreten sind, und daß nun diese Neigungen, diese menschlichen Bedürfnisse, diese, ich möchte sagen, Vorliebe gerade die Menschheit dahin gebracht haben, auf der einen Seite den Blick, die Aufmerksamkeit auf die Natur zu lenken, und auf der anderen Seite dem Wissen von der Natur das Gepräge zu geben, das wir heute, gerade wenn wir auf geisteswissenschaftlichem Boden stehen, so sehr bewundern müssen.
Eine der hervorstechendsten Begabungen, die da aufgetreten sind, ist die: genau das rein äußerlich-sinnlich Tatsächliche zu beobachten. Mit dieser Vorliebe und Begabung für die Beobachtung des sinnlich Gegebenen, des sinnlich Tatsächlichen, hat sich aber auch die andere Neigung verknüpft: dem sinnlich Tatsächlichen einen ganz vorzüglichen ausschließlichen Wert beizulegen und zu glauben, daß alles, was über das sinnlich Tatsächliche hinausgeht, den Menschen in irgendwelche unerlaubte Erkenntnisgebiete, in irgendwelche verschwommene phantastische Sphären hineinführen, kurz, zu Erkenntnisabgründen geleiten müsse.
Daß dieses so ist, kann man insbesondere ersehen, wenn man den Blick wirft auf das Bestreben, den Menschen selbst naturwissenschaftlich zu erobern. Dieses Bestreben ging darauf hinaus, dieselben Kräfte, dieselben Gesetzmäßigkeiten, die sich für die vom Menschen abgesonderte Natur finden, auch auf den Menschen anzuwenden, den Menschen gewissermaßen zu verstehen als ein bloßes Naturwesen, aber als ein solches Naturwesen, wie es vor dem naturforscherischen Blicke der neueren Zeit entstanden ist. Und dieser Eroberungszug der Naturwissenschaft hat sich nicht nur auf das äußerlich Natürliche des Menschen, sondern er hat sich auch darauf erstreckt, das Seelische des Menschen in irgendeiner Weise naturwissenschaftlich zu betrachten, ja es möglichst nahe heranzubringen an die reine Naturgesetzmäßigkeit. Und man kann, ich möchte sagen, dem modernen Seelenforscher sogar Befriedigung, Genugtuung anmerken, wenn er in der Lage ist, irgend etwas, wovon er glaubt, daß es sich als ein unumstößliches Naturgesetz erwiesen hat, auch anwenden zu können auf das menschliche Seelenleben. Wenn ich extreme Fälle nach dieser Richtung hin vorführe, so möchte ich damit die Sache möglichst eklatant charakterisieren.
Wer noch auf dem Standpunkt steht, daß das menschliche Seelische ein Wesen in sich ist, der wird selbstverständlich zu der Vorstellung kommen, daß dieses in sich geschlossene menschliche seelische Wesen sich durch Willensimpulse — über Freiheit oder Unfreiheit werden wir übermorgen sprechen — kraftmäßig durch den Organismus äußern kann. Die Vorstellung, daß das Seelenwesen gewissermaßen der Kraftursprung für die Bewegung, für die Handlung des Organismus ist, beherrscht sogar manche Menschen der Gegenwart.
Diejenigen aber, die da glauben, rein naturwissenschaftlich denken zu sollen, sagen sich: Die Naturwissenschaft hat im 19. Jahrhundert als eines ihrer bedeutsamsten Gesetze erobert das von der Konstanz, von der Erhaltung der Energie, von der Umwandlung der Kräfte in solcher Art, daß nicht irgendwie Neues entstehen kann im Kräftesystem, daß nicht irgend etwas eingreifen kann in dieses Kräftesystem, das nicht schon innerhalb dieses Kräftesystems drinnen lebt. Wenn nun, so sagt man sich, die Seele imstande wäre, von sich selbst aus den Organismus in Bewegung zu setzen, so müßte sie eine Kraft entwickeln. Diese müßte aber hinzukommen zu den Kräften, die der Organismus durch Nahrungsaufnahme und durch seine sonstigen Verhältnisse zur Umwelt hat. Die Seele müßte gewissermaßen ein Kraftursprung sein; gewissermaßen aus dem Nichts heraus müßte Kraft kommen, während das Gesetz von der : Erhaltung der Kraft nur gestattet, daß sich im menschlichen Organismus die Kräfte, die er durch die Nahrung und dergleichen hereinbekommt, in Energie umsetzen, so daß eine Bewegung oder eine Wärmeentwickelung, die von ihm ausgeht, nichts anderes sein kann, als die Umwandlung der Nahrungsenergie und sonstiger Energie, die er von außen aufnimmt. So kommt mit diesem Gesetze von der Erhaltung der Kraft, das eine so bedeutsame Rolle in der naturwissenschaftlichen Entwickelung des 19. Jahrhunderts spielt, in Konflikt, wer der Vorstellung gegenübersteht, in der Seele sei eine Ursprungsstätte von irgendwelchen Kräften.
Daher war man wirklich sehr froh, experimentell widerlegen zu können, daß in der Seele ein solches «Kraftreservoir» da sei, das in den Umwandlungsprozeß der Kräfte eingreifen könne. Und die Experimente, welche nach dieser Richtung hin mit Tieren zunächst der bedeutsame Biologe Rubner und die Fortsetzung dieser Experimente mit Menschen, die Atwater gemacht hat, werden auch von Psychologen heute, ich möchte sagen, mit einer gewissen ‘Befriedigung verzeichnet. Rubner hat an Tieren gezeigt, daß das, was sie an Wärmeenergien, an Bewegungsenergien aufbringen, wirklich für die Messung sich als nichts anderes erweist als die Umwandlung der Nahrungsenergien, die sie aufgenommen haben, daß also nichts aus einem Seelischen heraus kommt; und Atwater hat diese Experimente auf den Menschen ausgedehnt und er hat sich dazu ganz besondere Exemplare von Menschen ausgewählt, von denen man glaubte - selbstverständlich —, daß sie die Sache noch besser machen könnten: akademisch gebildete Personen, mit denen man experimentiert hat unter allen möglichen Verhältnissen, ob sie nun geistige Arbeit, körperliche Arbeit verrichteten, in Ruhe waren, oder Energien von innen heraus entwickelten. Er hat bis zu einem Prozentsatze, der bei Versuchen immer eine Rolle spielt, der aber ganz geringfügig ist, den Nachweis führen können, daß auch im menschlichen Organismus das, was von innen herausdringt, nicht aus einem Kraftreservoir der Seele kommt, sondern daß es umgewandelte Energien sind, die der menschliche Organismus erst aufnehmen mußte. Auch Psychologen wie Ebbinghaus konstatieren mit einer gewissen Befriedigung, daß gar nicht davon die Rede sei, daß irgendeine Seelenlehre in Konflikt kommen dürfe mit dem Gesetze von der Erhaltung der Kraft.
Zu solch einem Beispiel könnten Hunderte und Hunderte von den verschiedenen Gesichtspunkten aus hinzugefügt werden; man würde an ihnen sehen, wie bedeutsam, wie charakteristisch der Eroberungszug der naturwissenschaftlichen Vorstellungsart in das Gebiet auch des geistigen Lebens herein ist. So ist es begreiflich, da ja dieser naturwissenschaftliche Eroberungszug, oder wir können bis zu einem gewissen Grade durchaus sagen Siegeszug, noch verhältnismäßig jung ist, daß er sich in seinem Laufe nicht durch etwas anderes wie diese Geisteswissenschaft aufhalten lassen will, daß er auf seinem Wege noch mancherlei Neigungen — wie man sagt «Vorurteile», könnte man auch sagen «Vorneigungen» — gegen sie hat, gegen die es außerordentlich schwierig ist, anzukämpfen. Wenn nicht Naturwissenschaft selber gerade aus sich heraus die Notwendigkeit ergäbe — wie aus dem Kinde der erwachsene Mensch werden muß mit Notwendigkeit —, daß aus der Naturwissenschaft heraus selbst die Geisteswissenschaft sich entwickelt, so würde es wahrscheinlich noch sehr, sehr lange dauern, bis die Geisteswissenschaft auch nur irgendwie Gehör finden könnte bei der Naturwissenschaft, wenn sie da oder dort auftritt.
Nun muß ich allerdings ausgehen von einigen kritischen Bemerkungen. Selbstverständlich muß man bei solchen Dingen immer einzelnes herausheben, denn ich möchte nicht in abstrakten Prinzipien sprechen. Ich möchte überhaupt heute nicht allgemeine Charakteristiken vorbringen, sondern lieber von Einzelheiten ausgehen und an Einzelheiten erhärten, was ich vorbringen möchte.
Wenn wir Überblick halten über das, was die Naturwissenschaften als Charakter, als Denkungsweise, als Vorstellungsart in der neueren Zeit angenommen haben, dann müssen wir sagen: Diese Naturwissenschaften stehen vor allen Dingen unter dem Eindrucke, von der Natur irgendwelche Erfahrungen erhalten zu müssen, welche wie aus irgendeinem, dem Menschen gegenüber jenseits befindlichen Gebiete kommen. — Ich will nicht auf philosophische Erörterungen eingehen; aber eine Grenzfrage muß doch berührt werden, nicht weil ich glaubte, daß es für den Naturforscher der Gegenwart von ganz besonderer Bedeutung ist, sich mit dieser Grenzfrage zu befassen, oder weil etwa viele Naturforscher selber auf diese Grenzfrage zu sprechen kommen, sondern deswegen, weil sich doch gewissermaßen unbewußt ihr Erkenntnisstreben nach diesem Ziele hin bewegt und nur beurteilt werden kann, wenn man es in der Bewegung nach dieser Richtung, nach diesem Ziele ins Auge faßt.
Ich möchte anknüpfen an eine Vorstellung, die ja gewiß philosophischen Ursprungs ist, die aber in vielen Menschenköpfen spukt: die Vorstellung des «Dings an sich». Gewiß, die Philosophenfrage — noch einmal sei es betont — nach dem «Ding an sich» im Kantschen oder einem anderen Sinne, sie wird den eigentlichen Naturforscher recht wenig interessieren. Aber die ganze Richtung, das ganze Bestreben des naturforscherischen Denkens geht dahin, sich zu nähern diesem «Ding an sich»: Ob man nun mehr auf dem Boden der älteren Atomtheorie steht oder auf dem Boden der modernen Ionentheorie, der Elektronentheorie, ob man auf diesem oder jenem biologischen Standpunkte steht, man wird zwar von vornherein, selbstverständlich, zugeben, man wolle nur die «Gesetze der Erscheinungen» kennenlernen, und das «Ding an sich» den Philosophen überlassen — aber wie man an die Gesetze der Erscheinungen herantritt, wie man die Erscheinungen überhaupt prüft, das beruht auf der Voraussetzung, daß hinter diesen Erscheinungen irgendein «Ding an sich» ist, und daß man, wenn man noch tiefer hineingehen könnte in das Gebiet, das meinetwillen durch Mikroskopie oder durch andere naturwissenschaftliche Methoden enthüllt wird, immer näher und näher einem solchen «Ding an sich» kommen würde.
Diese Vorstellung beherrscht wenigstens unbewußt die Richtung des naturwissenschaftlichen Denkens, denn wer zum Beispiel eine Atomwelt annimmt, oder annimmt, daß hinter dem in unserer Umwelt ausgebreiteten Teppich der Farben und der Lichtnuancen Schwingungen des Äthers sind, der stellt sich vor, daß diese Schwingungen des Äthers gewissermaßen einer Sphäre des «Dinges an sich» angehören. Und Eduard von Hartmann, der Philosoph des Unbewußten, der eine Naturphilosophie begründen wollte, hat es geradezu als eine Forderung ausgesprochen, daß man dasjenige, was da der Naturwissenschafter als Atomwelt und dergleichen oder als hinter den sinnlichen Wahrnehmungen stehende Kräfte annimmt, daß man das gelten lassen müsse als etwas, was dem «Ding an sich» gleichkomme.
Für den anthroposophisch orientierten Geisteswissenschafter ist nun dieses Suchen nach einem hinter den Phänomenen liegenden «Ding an sich», also diese ganze Richtung - ich spreche jetzt nicht von philosophischen Hypothesen, sondern von dieser naturwissenschaftlichen Richtung - vergleichbar dem Versuch, falls man in einem Spiegel diese oder jene Bilder sieht, zu untersuchen, was hinter dem Spiegel ist: wenn man, um zu sehen, wie diese Bilder aus dem Spiegel herauskommen, hinter den Spiegel gehen würde, um zu sehen, wo der Ursprung der Bilder liegt. Der Ursprung der Bilder liegt aber gar nicht hinter dem Spiegel! Sondern der Ursprung der Bilder liegt vor dem Spiegel: wo wir schon stehen! Wir sind in dem Gebiete drinnen, woher die Bilder kommen, und wir würden uns einer unglaublichen Illusion hingeben, wenn wir glaubten, wir müßten hinter den Spiegel hinten hineingreifen, um da irgend etwas zu finden, woraus diese Bilder herkommen. So grotesk, so paradox es klingt: die naturwissenschaftlichen Begriffsvorstellungen beruhen auf der Illusion, hinter den Spiegel greifen zu müssen. Das «Ding an sich» liegt für diese Illusion hinter dem Spiegel. Aber es liegt in Wirklichkeit nicht dort.
Woher kommt denn das? Das kommt daher, daß wir zwar, so wie wir Menschen sind, mitten drinnenstehen nicht nur in einer äußeren materiellen Welt, hinter der ein «Ding an sich» steht, sondern mitten drinnen in alldem, was dieser Welt zugrunde liegt, nur ist nicht alles Inhalt unseres Bewußtseins. Wir stehen mitten drinnen! Und wir kommen durch eine Zergliederung der äußeren Naturphänomene nicht hinter das, was der Ursprung ist, ebensowenig wie man durch eine Zergliederung des bloßen Bildes eines Menschen im Spiegel dazu kommt, das Wesen des Menschen zu erkennen, als physische Persönlichkeit dieses Spiegelbild zu erkennen. Man kommt nicht durch eine Zergliederung der Phänomene dazu, das Wesen dieser Phänomene zu erkennen, sondern allein dadurch, daß man sich, wenn ich so sagen darf, intensiv mit seinem Bewußtsein erhebt über das, was dieses Bewußtsein im Alltag wirkt. Und dieses Erheben geschieht auf die Weise, wie ich es im ersten Vortrag hier charakterisiert habe.
Das Bewußtsein, das wir im Alltag als das gewöhnliche Wachbewußtsein haben, ist nur geeignet, aus sich die begrifflichen Werkzeuge zu bilden, um die Phänomene in Ordnung, in Systematik zu bringen, was man «Gesetzmäßigkeit» nennt. Will das Bewußtsein weiterdringen, dann muß es sich selber umwandeln; dann muß es aus sich selber heraus Kräfte entwickeln, die in ihm sonst schlummern; dann muß aus den Tiefen dieses Bewußtseins herauftauchen, was ich als imaginative, inspirierte, intuitive Erkenntnis, kurz, als schauende Erkenntnis, als schauendes Bewußtsein — aber nicht in nebulosem, sondern in streng wissenschaftlichem Sinne — zu charakterisieren versuchte.
Wie man niemals darauf kommen würde, wenn man unbewußt seiner selbst wäre, aus dem Spiegelbild heraus etwas über das Wesen, das physische Wesen des Menschen zu wissen, ohne daß man sich erkraftet und sich erfühlt als physischer Mensch — man muß sich erfühlen, man muß wissen, daß man selbst da steht —, ebensowenig kann man zum Wesen der Naturerscheinungen kommen, ohne daß man sein Seelisches, das in den Naturerscheinungen drinnensteht, so erkraftet, daß es eine andere Natur der Erkenntnis hat als die des gewöhnlichen Wachbewußtseins. In bezug auf das, was dieses schauende Bewußtsein, was die imaginative und so weiter Erkenntnis ist, möchte ich auf meine Schriften, insbesondere auf mein vorletztes Buch «Vom Menschenrätsel» verweisen. Nur prinzipiell möchte ich sagen: Es handelt sich nicht darum, ein körperlich neues Organ, sondern darum, rein im seelischen Gebiete ein wirkliches Schauvermögen zu entwickeln, Geistorgane, welche zu dem, was die Seele im gewöhnlichen Wachbewußtsein in ihrer Umwelt sieht, ebenso Neues hinzufügen, wie bei dem operierten Blindgeborenen das eröffnete Auge die Farbenwelt hinzufügt zu der Welt, von der er früher allein wußte.
Die Aufgabe besteht also nicht darin, durch irgendwelche Stoffhypothesen, durch irgendwelche Schlußfolgerungen zu einem «Ding an sich», zu einem «hinter den Phänomenen» Gelegenen zu kommen, sondern darin, die Seele so zu erkraften, daß sie gewissermaßen vor dem Spiegel das Wesentliche sieht.
Nun wird man allerdings lange brauchen, bis man in weiteren Kreisen wissenschaftlich solch ein schauendes Bewußtsein ernst nimmt, obwohl mit diesem schauenden Bewußtsein weder ein Wunder noch irgend etwas irgendeinem Menschen Unzugängliches charakterisiert ist, sondern etwas, was jeder Mensch aus sich heraus finden kann, wenn auch die heutigen Denkgewohnheiten, die Empfindungs- und Erkenntnisgewohnheiten, sich hemmend erweisen gegen das Erwecken eines solchen schauenden Bewußtseins.
Nun möchte ich etwas von den Ergebnissen dieses schauenden Bewußtseins gerade mit Bezug auf das, was man Natur nennen kann, vorbringen. Da werde ich allerdings genötigt sein, manches vorzubringen, worüber man sich heute nur sehr schwer mit den in der Naturwissenschaft fest Drinnenstehenden verständigen kann. Allein bei einer solchen Gelegenheit wird es vielleicht gestattet sein, auf Persönliches hinzuweisen: Was ich vorbringe, ist durchaus nicht etwa irgendein Einfall oder eine Summe von Einfällen, nicht irgend etwas Ersonnenes, sondern es ist in jahrzehntelanger Forschung in vollem Einklange mit der naturwissenschaftlichen Entwickelung der neueren Zeit gewonnen; und manches von dem, was ich gerade heute auszusprechen habe, ich hätte es vor kurzer Zeit noch nicht in dieser Weise zu formulieren vermocht.
Vor allen Dingen möchte ich an Konkretes, an Einzelnes anknüpfen. Einen großen Einfluß auf das naturwissenschaftliche Vorstellen hat ja in der neueren Zeit gewonnen, was man die Entwicklungslehre, die Deszendenztheorie nennt. Und da muß man sagen: wenn man nicht Dilettant ist auf diesem Gebiete, so weiß man, welche Frucht diese Deszendenztheorie, von allen ihren Schattenseiten abgesehen, dem modernen Denken, der ganzen modernen Weltauffassung gebracht hat. Allerdings muß man, wenn man so recht das Wesen dieser Entwicklungstheorie würdigen will, absehen von all den dilettantischen und laienhaften Weltanschauungsbestrebungen, in die leider die wissenschaftlichen Ergebnisse auf diesem Gebiete in der letzten Zeit so zahlreich eingelaufen sind. Was sich da oftmals als «monistische» oder sonstige Weltanschauungsbewegungen geltend macht, beruht zunächst nur darauf, daß die Träger wenig wissen von dem, was die Wissenschaft selbst auf dem Gebiete, von dem sie reden, in der letzten Zeit für eine Gestalt angenommen hat. Es ist oftmals grotesk, wie solche Weltanschauungsbestrebungen den wissenschaftlichen Fortschritten hintennach humpeln, die durchaus nicht mehr mit solchen Dingen einverstanden sein können.
Aber in den Sinn kommt einem, wenn man von Entwicklungslehre spricht, die Jugendzeit dieser Entwicklungslehre, all die großen idealistischen Hoffnungen, welche — ich will ihn weder unterschätzen noch überschätzen — Ernst Haeckel in den sechziger, siebziger Jahren an sie knüpfte, Hoffnungen, die er dann in seinen Schülern angeregt hat. Ich will heute weniger erwähnen, zu welchen Radikalismen Ernst Haeckel seinerzeit gekommen ist, obwohl er ungeheuere, auch positive wissenschaftliche Verdienste hat. Ich will aber aufmerksam darauf machen, daß auch vorsichtige Forscher, die sich auf das Gebiet der Entwicklungslehre begeben haben — es seien nur Namen wie Nägeli und Gegenbaur genannt —, die Fruchtbarkeit der Entwicklungslehre nicht nur selbst gefühlt, sondern sie in ihrem Eingreifen in die wissenschaftliche Entwickelung der neueren Zeit auch erwiesen haben. Eine große Anzahl von Namen könnte da genannt werden. Allein etwas Eigentümliches hat sich doch ergeben, gerade wenn wir geschichtlich die verhältnismäßig kurze Entwickelung dieser Entwicklungslehre ins Auge fassen,
Mit welch großen Hoffnungen im Sinne der reinen Ausgestaltung der darwinistischen Prinzipien segelten einstmals Haeckel und seine Schüler durch die wissenschaftliche Strömung der neueren Zeit! Welche Rolle hat das Schlagwort «Selektions-Theorie», «Auslese des Passendsten» gespielt! Welche Weltanschauungshoffnungen knüpften manche Leute daran, daß man sich nunmehr sagen könne: Irgendwelche weisheitsvollen Kräfte, die in die Weltenentwickelung eingreifen sollen, seien überwunden. Was man einsehen müsse, sei: daß Kräfte, die Zufallskräften gleichkommen, den ebenfalls aus rein natürlicher Notwendigkeit hervorgehenden Entwickelungsstufen dieses oder jenes Organismus’ auslesend so gegenübertreten, daß das Passende übrigbleibt neben dem Unpassenden, und das Passende dadurch gewissermaßen immer vollkommener dasteht gegenüber dem Unvollkommenen, das abgefallen ist, so daß eine Vervollkommnung ohne ein irgendwie teleologisches Zweckprinzip gedacht werden könne! Und noch heute gibt es Leute, die da glauben, so recht auf dem Boden einer modernen Weltanschauung zu stehen, wenn sie sagen: Möge alles überwunden werden, was Darwin selbst für seine Entwicklungslehre vorgebracht hat, die Errungenschaften können nicht aus der Welt geschafft werden, daß man einmal dazu gekommen sei, von zielstrebigen Kräften, von, wie Eduard von Hartmann sagt, «Oberkräften» abzusehen, die in die rein unorganische Gesetzmäßigkeit des Naturreiches eingreifen, wenn Organisches entsteht!
In dem, was da das Denken erfaßt hat, was in den Menschen hineingefahren ist, um ihn frei zu bekommen von gewissen Vorurteilen, an denen er früher gehaftet hat, sieht man von gewissen Weltanschauungsstandpunkten aus einen ganz besonderen Wert. Allein wir haben eine merkwürdige Sache erlebt: Als der Darwinismus mit seiner Ausschaltung aller höheren Kräfte, die in die organische Entwickelung eingreifen sollen, auftrat, da erschien - ich will Eduard von Hartmann nicht verteidigen, aber das, was ich erzähle, ist eben eine Tatsache — Ende der sechziger Jahre des 19. Jahrhunderts, also in der Blütezeit des aufkommenden Darwinismus, die «Philosophie des Unbewußten». Eduard von Hartmann stellte sich gegen die bloße Zufallstheorie. Er behauptete, es müsse in das leblose, tote Wirken der rein unorganischen Naturgesetzmäßigkeit etwas ganz anderes eingreifen — Richtungskräfte, höhere Wesenskräfte —, wenn organische Entwickelung zustande kommen solle. Was die Auslese bewirkt, das könne nichts Neues schaffen; was neu entsteht, müsse aus inneren Triebkräften entstehen; die Auslese könne nur eben zwischen dem auslesen, was schon da ist, könne das Unpassende fortschaffen, könne aber nicht aus dem Unvollkommenen allmählich ein Vollkommenes hervorzaubern. Manches Geistvolle hat Eduard von Hartmann in seiner «Philosophie des Unbewußten» gegen den damals so hoffnungsreich aufsteigenden Darwinismus, die Entwicklungslehre, die rein mechanistisch denkt, vorgebracht. Man hat den Philosophen des Unbewußten, weil er eben Philosoph und nicht Naturwissenschafter war, nicht ernst genommen. Man hat gesagt: Ach, was solch ein Dilettant, der von naturwissenschaftlichen Prinzipien doch nichts versteht, sagt, das könne für die naturwissenschaftliche Entwickelung keinen besonderen Wert haben. — Mit solchen und ähnlichen Bemerkungen fertigte man ab, was Eduard von Hartmann zu sagen hatte.
Es erschienen Gegenschriften gegen diesen «laienhaften, dilettantischen Philosophen». Eine Gegenschrift erschien: «Das Unbewußte vom Standpunkt der Physiologie und Deszendenz-Theorie» von einem Anonymus, von einem Mann, der sich nicht nannte, die diesen Eduard von Hartmann glänzend vom Standpunkte des damaligen Darwinismus abfertigte. Oskar Schmidt, der Biograph Darwins, Haeckel selbst, andere, verhielten sich sehr sympathisch zu dieser Schrift des Ungenannten und sagten: Das sei nun gut — so ungefähr kann man diese Urteile zusammenfassen -, daß jemand, bei dem man auf jeder Seite sehe, wie er drinnenstehe in der wahren naturwissenschaftlichen Denkweise, solch einen Dilettanten wie diesen Eduard von Hartmann abfertige. Dieser Anonymus — so sagte einer von den in der Wolle gefärbten Darwinisten — nenne sich uns nur, und wir betrachten ihn als einen der Unsern! — Und ein anderer, der ganz fest auf dem Boden der darwinistisch-mechanistischen "Theorie stand, der sagte: Alles, was ich selbst hätte sagen können gegen den Dilettantismus Eduard von Hartmanns, das hat der gesagt. — Kurz, die Darwinisten haben viel Propaganda gemacht für diese Schrift, und sie war bald abgesetzt. Eine zweite Auflage war bald notwendig geworden. Da nannte sich jetzt der Verfasser: es war Eduard von Hartmann! Von nun an trat allgemeines Schweigen unter denjenigen ein, die die Schrift vorher gelobt hatten; und die Tatsache wurde wenig erwähnt.
Aber so sonderbar dies ist, was sich anschließt, scheint mir viel bemerkenswerter zu sein: Einer der bedeutsamsten Schüler Ernst Haeckels, einer derjenigen, die ihre Studienjahre ganz im Geiste der aufblühenden neueren Entwicklungslehren, wie sie sich an den Namen Darwin anknüpfen, durchgemacht haben, ist Oscar Hertwig. Und Oscar Hertwig — man bedenke nur, wie kurze Zeit es eigentlich erst ist seit der Blütezeit der darwinistischen Lehre -, Oscar Hertwig hat im vorigen Jahre, 1916, ein Buch, ein wahrhaft für naturwissenschaftliche Darstellung mustergültiges Buch erscheinen lassen: «Das Werden der Organismen; eine Widerlegung von Darwins Zufallstheorie.» Und unter den Leuten, von denen Oscar Hertwig in diesem ausgezeichneten Buche sagt, daß man auf sie hören solle, wenn für das Organismenreich andere Kräftegeltend gemacht werden, als sie im Unorganischen spielen, ist Eduard von Hartmann!
Es ist schon eine sehr merkwürdige Erscheinung, daß sich in verhältnismäßig so kurzer Zeit aus dem Lager, aus dem heraus auch die besten Fortführer der älteren Entwicklungslehre der sechziger, siebziger, achtziger Jahre gekommen sind, selbst der Widerleger eines der Grundgedanken dieser Entwicklungslehre findet. Das sollte diejenigen, die mit ein paar hingepfahlten dilettantischen Begriffen heute Weltanschauungen — sogenannte «monistische» — zimmern, doch etwas bedenklich machen.
Nun muß ich auf einige konkrete Fragen, nicht so sehr der neueren Entwicklungslehre, sondern der Entwicklungslehre überhaupt eingehen, um daran zu zeigen, wie sich ihnen gegenüber die anthroposophisch orientierte Geisteswissenschaft stellen muß. Diese Entwicklungslehre beruht ja darauf, daß aus den Tatsachen heraus die Schlußfolgerung gezogen wird: das Vollkommene, sogenannte Vollkommene, wie es heute vor uns steht, vielleicht besser das differenzierter Organisierte habe sich aus dem weniger Vollkommenen, weniger differenziert Organisierten, allmählich herausentwickelt. Nicht nur Geologie und Paläontologie werden für die Beweise dieser Anschauung herbeigeholt, sondern auch die Embryologie, dieEntwicklungslehre des einzelnen Individuums. Und gerade durch eine Entwicklungslehre des einzelnen Individuums, vergleichend allerdings mit der Tierembryologie, ist das neue Buch Oscar Hertwigs «Das Werden der Organismen» mustergültig. Es faßt in einer schönen Weise zusammen, was auf diesem Gebiete gesagt wird. Und von der individuellen Entwickelung muß ja doch alle Entwicklungslehre ausgehen, Haeckel wollte ja gerade mit seinem sogenannten biogenetischen Grundgesetz zum Ausdruck bringen, daß sich in der Entwickelung des Individuums die ganze Stammesentwickelung wiederholt, so daß in der Embryonalentwickelung der höheren Tiere die morphologischen Formen und physiologischen Funktionen der einfacheren früheren Tiere auf einer gewissen Stufe wiederum zu finden wären.
So sonderbar es nun aber ist: über eine sehr triviale Frage wird die individuelle Entwicklungslehre, wenn sie auf die Entwickelung der Organismen im ganzen Anwendung von ihren Gesetzen machen will, nicht hinwegkommen. Ich bitte sogar um Entschuldigung, daß ich diese triviale Sache vorbringe; sie ist unzählige Male vorgebracht worden, aber sie ist, wie wir gleich sehen werden, doch von prinzipieller Bedeutung. Es ist einfach die Frage: Wovon ist auszugehen bei der Entwickelung, vom Ei oder vom Huhn? Das Huhn entwickelt sich aus dem Ei, aber - das Ei kann nur vom Huhn kommen.
Sobald man heute, wo die Tatsachen sozusagen nach vorne und rückwärts ins Unbestimmte verlaufen, die Sache untersucht, hat die Frage nicht viel Bedeutung. Wenn man sich aber nun Vorstellungen bilden will von der Beziehung der individuellen Entwickelung zur Weltenentwickelung, dann hat sie schon eine Bedeutung. Denn dann ist man ja genötigt, daran zu denken, daß Umstände irgendwie dagewesen sein müssen, unter denen sich der Eikeim, also dasjenige, was heute Grundlage der individuellen Entwickelung ist, für sich entwickeln konnte, ohne daß er eine Deszendenz hatte von irgendwelchen schon einigermaßen vollkommenen Wesen. Wie gesagt, ich kann die Sache nur andeuten; aber wer auf die Frage näher eingeht, wird schon finden, daß die Sache, so trivial sie ist, eine große Bedeutung hat.
Nun kommt man, gerade wenn man gewissenhaft und ehrlich dieser Frage auf den Leib rückt, der Sache nicht bei, wenn man nur mit den embryologischen Vorstellungen an sie herantritt, welche die heutige Naturwissenschaft geben kann. Man kommt irgendwie zu dem, was ich im ersten meiner Vorträge genannt habe «die Grenzorte des Erkennens»; man kommt zu einem jener «Orte», an denen sich gerade die höheren Kräfte des schauenden Bewußtseins entwickeln müssen. Man kann sogar sagen: Solchen Fragen kann man bedeutsame Anregungen verdanken zur Entwickelung von Seelenkräften, die sonst vielleichtlange in der Seele schlummernd geblieben wären. Verfolgt man nun diese Sache nicht mit der Gesinnung, daß man hinter den Spiegel greift, sondern so, daß man dasjenige, was vor dem Spiegel ist, als Ursache für das ansieht, was als Phänomen erscheint, also was durch den Spiegel erscheint, dann findet man, wenn man aufrückt zu dem schauenden Bewußtsein, daß man, auch heute, nur, wenn man sich einem herben Irrtum hingibt, sagen kann: Das Ei entsteht im Huhn durch das Huhn oder durch die bloße Befruchtung von dem Huhn. So sieht die Sache von außen aus, so sieht gewissermaßen das Spiegelbild aus. Aber gelangt man dazu, im schauenden Bewußtsein zu übersehen, was wirklich da ist, so kommt man zu etwas anderem, so kommt man dazu, daß sich in der Tat das Ei durchaus nicht durch die Kräfte allein, welche von dem Hühnerpaar ausgehen, im Körper des Huhnes bildet und heranreift.
Eine naturwissenschaftliche Auffassung, die nur auf das Sinnlich-Tatsächliche geht, kann natürlich gar nicht zu anderen Anschauungen kommen, als daß durch die Wechselwirkung von Hahn und Huhn und durch das, was im Leibe des Huhns vorgeht, das Ei sich bildet. Aber man muß, wenn man dann Anschauungen bilden will über eine solche Sache, zu recht mystischen Begriffen kommen — Begriffen, die im übeln Sinne mystisch sind, mit denen sehr viele operieren, sogar Hertwig wiederum - zum Beispiel zum Begriff der «Anlage».
Wenn man von «Anlage» spricht — zu irgend etwas, was sich entwickelt -, dann kann man zu allem, was sich in der Welt ergibt, dadurch eine Erklärung finden, daß man sagt: Nun, jetzt ist es da, früher war es nicht da, das erste, was da ist, war eben die «Anlage» davon! — Das ist ungefähr ebenso klug, als wenn man bei gewissen Krankheiten, die unter den gleichen Voraussetzungen bei einzelnen Menschen entstehen, bei anderen nicht, spricht von «Disposition». So kann man alles zurückschieben, nicht wahr, in diesen Dingen! Und wenn man nicht versucht, damit auf irgendeine Klarheit zu kommen, wird man nur zu einem doch nicht von wirklichem Vorstellungsinhalt ganz erfüllten, sondern unklaren Worte gelangen. «Anlage», «Disposition», das sind verkehrte mystische Begriffe, die nur dann Sinn haben, wenn man auf das Reale, auf das geistig Wahrnehmbare eingehen kann.
Nun sieht das schauende Bewußtsein noch allerlei anderes. Geradeso wie der Blinde, der operiert wird, dann Farben sieht, so sieht das schauende Bewußtsein allerlei anderes. Und dieses andere, das es in unserem Falle sieht, macht ihm klar, daß dasjenige, was auch heute noch als Ei im Huhn entsteht, in der Tat aus Kräften heraus entsteht, die nicht im Huhne liegen, sondern die aus dem Weltenall herein in das Huhn ausgeübt werden. Was Huhnleib ist und das Ei umgibt, gibt wirklich nur den Mutterboden ab. Die Kräfte, die das Ei gestalten, die kommen aus dem Kosmos, die kommen von außen herein. Und die Befruchtung ist sogar — auf solche Einzelheiten kann ich heute nicht eingehen, aber sie lassen sich ganz genau bestimmen — nur die Herbeiführung der Möglichkeit, daß an diesem bestimmten Orte gewisse aus dem Kosmos hereinwirkende Kräfte einen Anhaltspunkt gewinnen.
Das, was als Ei im Huhnkörper sich entwickelt, ist aus dem Kosmos heraus entwickelt, ist ein Abbild des Kosmos. Wenn jemand das unvorstellbar findet und kein Analogon finden kann auf anderen Gebieten, so soll er sich doch einmal vorstellen, was es bedeuten würde, wenn er die Richtung der Magnetnadel bloß aus inneren Kräften der Magnetnadel herleiten wollte. Das tut er nicht; er leitet sie aus einer terrestrischen Wirkung ab, also aus Kräften, die mit der ganzen Erde zu tun haben. In die Magnetnadel herein wirken Kräfte aus der Umgebung. Hier auf unorganischem Gebietekann man mit der bloßen äußeren sinnlichen Wahrnehmung auf solche Sachen kommen. Daß in das Ei herein Kräfte wirken, die nicht bloß bei den Voreltern gesucht werden müssen, sondern draußen im ganzen Kosmos, das wird eine Errungenschaft sein der geisteswissenschaftlich befruchteten Naturwissenschaft. Und mancherlei auch für die Praxis bedeutsame Resultate werden zutage treten, wenn man einmal darauf Rücksicht nehmen wird, daß im Grunde genommen das, was die äußere Naturwissenschaft vorliegend hat, wenn es noch so sinnlich-tatsächlich ist, nur ein Abstraktum ist, nur etwas ist, worauf man baut, weil man die stärkeren Kräfte nicht kennt.
Das schauende Bewußtsein sieht bei jedem Befruchtungs- und embryologischen Entwickelungsvorgang außerindividuelle Kräfte aus dem Kosmos hereinwirken, die im einzelnen beschrieben werden könnten. In meiner kleinen Schrift «Das menschliche Leben vom Gesichtspunkte der Geisteswissenschaft» weise ich auf diese ganze Forschungsweise auf anderem Gebiete hin, heute möchte ich gerade auf dieses Gebiet hinweisen.
Wenn nun der, wie man heute sagt, empirische Naturforscher, den ich wahrhaft nicht geringschätze, sondern aufs höchste bewundere, denn, was die Naturwissenschaft in ihrer Empirie zutage gefördert hat, das gibt weit reichere Ausbeute an menschlichen Erkenntnissen, ich möchte sagen hundert- und tausendmal mehr Ausbeute an menschlichen Erkenntnissen als die rudimentären Begriffe, die die Naturwissenschaft selbst heute anzuwenden, zu bieten vermag; wenn also der Embryologe seine Tatsachen zutage fördert, insbesondere wenn er sich der schon so bewunderungswürdig ausgebildeten Mikroskopie bedient, und wenn dann der Geisteswissenschafter diese Arbeit mitmacht, dann sagt sich der Geisteswissenschafter: Gewiß, was da der Embryologe tatsächlich konstatiert, das alles ist äußerlich, sinnlich-tatsächlich; aber indem er beschreibt, wie sich der männliche Keim mit dem weiblichen Keim vereinigt und so weiter, wie sich dann dieses oder jenes durch die Umlagerung der Zellkernteile bildet und so weiter — die Beschreibungen sind ja außerordentlich interessant und bedeutungsvoll -, dann sieht derjenige, der auf dem Standpunkte der anthroposophisch orientierten Geisteswissenschaft steht, in alldem die Spuren einer umfassenden geistigen Wirksamkeit, die sich in diesem Sinnlich-Anschaubaren nur zum Ausdrucke bringt. Und wollte man in dem, was da unter dem Mikroskop durch alle möglichen Färbungsmethoden erscheint, etwas absolut für sich Dastehendes sehen, das man nur zu beschreiben brauchte, um den Keimesvorgang und den Entwickelungsvorgang zu haben, so gliche man dem, der eine Straße verfolgt, auf der ein Mensch seine Spuren hinterlassen hat, und der da glauben würde, diese Spuren seien durch innere Kräfte der Erde aufgetrieben worden, nicht ein Mensch hätte sie eingegraben. So wie diese Spuren ganz falsch erklärt würden, wenn ich sagte: Da unten sind allerlei Kräfte, die diese Spuren auftreiben — sondern wie ich annehmen muß, daß da ein Mensch darübergegangen ist und den Boden getreten hat, so muß ich, wenn ich auf das wirklich Tatsächliche kommen will, auf das Geistige hinschauen, welches seine letzten Spuren aufdrückt, indem, verzeihen Sie den Ausdruck, wie durch Abscheidungsprozesse das zustande kommt, was dann unter dem Mikroskop und durch die Färbungsmethoden erscheint.
Aber man kommt nun, wenn das schauende Bewußtsein sich der Sache bemächtigt, noch zu etwas anderem. Man kommt dazu, diesen Vorgang, der da durch die reine Empirie, durch die reine äußere tatsächlich-sinnliche Erfahrung auftritt, mit etwas zu vergleichen, das man allein durch die Forschung des schauenden Bewußtseins kennenlernen kann.
Im ersten Vortrag habe ich skizziert, was im Menschen vorgeht, wenn er seine Sinneswahrnehmungen durch das Denken weiter bearbeitet, wenn er sich Vorstellungen bildet. Was sich dabei in der Seele abspielt als ein realer Prozeß, wird von einem materialistischen Denken gar nicht als ein solcher angesehen, sondern nur in den Nervenvorgängen gesucht. Wenn man aber diesen innerlich realen Prozeß, den die Seele für sich erlebt, durch die erwachte imaginative Erkenntnis wirklich verfolgt, wenn einem nicht bloß jene Abstraktheiten in der Seele sitzen, die die moderne Psychologie oder auch die Logik herbeischaffen - wie sich Vorstellungen «verbinden», «reproduzieren» und so weiter -, sondern wenn man vermag, durch eine ausgebildete Seelenwissenschaft in dem Sinne, wie ich sie im ersten Vortrag hier skizziert habe, dieses Innere des Vorstellens und eines Teiles des Fühlens ins Auge, ins innere Seelenauge zu fassen, dann hat man in dem, was man so ins Seelenauge faßt, etwas, was zusammengehört mit dem, was der Embryologe in der Keimesentwickelung, überhaupt im Fortgange der Zellenentwickelung, findet. Man sieht gewissermaßen, wie wenn man Vorbild und Abbild miteinander ganz tatsächlich vergleicht: auf der einen Seite den Vorstellungs- und Fühlvorgang in der Seele, und auf der anderen Seite den Vorgang der Befruchtung, den Vorgang der Kernteilung und so weiter, den der Zellteilung selber; und man sieht, wie diese beiden Vorgänge etwas miteinander zu tun haben - ich will mich möglichst vorsichtig ausdrücken: etwas miteinander zu tun haben, wie der eine gleichsam ins Materielle umgesetzt dasjenige darstellt, was der andere auf seelisch-geistigem Gebiete ist.
Und indem man den geistig-seelischen Vorgang wirklich ins Auge faßt, tritt noch etwas anderes auf. Man sieht ein: so wie dieser seelisch-geistige Vorgang heute im Menschen sich abspielt, so kann er sich nur abspielen, weil die ganze Naturumgebung mit dem Menschen darinnen als physische Leiblichkeit eine Grundlage dafür abgibt. Bei dem, der wirklich zur geistigen Anschauung kommt, erweitern sich die Fähigkeiten, die ihm möglich machen, das Wesen eines Seelisch-Geistigen wirklich zu schauen. Und so erkennt man: unter heutigen Verhältnissen ist zwar das, was sich als Vorstellungs- und Fühlvorgang entwickelt, nur so möglich, wie es eben heute geschieht — nur unter der Voraussetzung, daß das Ganze in Anwesenheit eines Menschenleibes sich abspielt; aber durch seine innere Wesenheit zeigt sich der Vorgang als ein solcher, der sich in der Zeit zurückschiebt. Die Zeit wird etwas Reales. Er schiebt sich in der Zeit zurück. Und man lernt tatsächlich erkennen, daß dasjenige, was sich heute in einem abspielt, indem man denkt und einen Teil des Fühlens vollbringt, tatsächlich etwas ist, was in weit, weit zurückliegender Vorzeit, als nicht eine solche irdische Umgebung da war, sich für sich selbst entwickeln konnte ohne den Menschenleib.
Und indem man auf diese Weise — ich kann nur, da die Zeit drängt, gewissermaßen die Anfangspunkte eines weitausgedehnten Erkenntnisweges hier skizzieren — dazu kommt, Geistig-Seelisches in wirklichen Bezug zu bringen zu dem, was sich sinnlich-tatsächlich vor Augen abspielt, bekommt man in einer ganz anderen Weise nun die Beziehung heraus, die überhaupt herrscht zwischen dem, was äußerlich-sinnlich-physische Natur ist, und dem, was seelisch-geistig durch die Welt wallt und wellt. Und wenn man das, was ich nur, ich möchte sagen, in den elementarischen Anfangsgründen darlegen konnte, nun ausbaut, kommt man — wenn man wirklich geisteswissenschaftlich weiterschreitet — nicht auf jenem äußerlich-wissenschaftlichen Wege, wie Geologie oder Paläontologie oder die Kant-Laplacesche Theorie, sondern auf dem Wege innerer geistig-seelischer Erfahrung, zu weit zurückliegenden Weltenzuständen, in denen zwar nicht möglich war, äußere physische Dinge, wie heute eine Embryonalentwickelung, mit einer physischen Zelle zu vollziehen, in denen aber dasjenige, was dazumal real sein konnte, noch in geistig-seelischer Form möglich war. Man sieht zurück auf GeistigSeelisches, das Vorgängerschaft ist von dem, was heute physisch-sinnlich geschieht.
Das Geistig-Seelische hat sich gewissermaßen heute in das Kosmische hinaus zurückgezogen; es wirkt auf dem Umwege durch die Leiblichkeit und bewirkt, sagen wir, beim Huhn, um zu unserem Beispiel wieder zurückzukehren, heute auch das Ei in einer Substanzendichtigkeit, die es in grauer Vorzeit nicht zu haben brauchte. Aber aus diesen Kräften, die man kennenlernt — über die man nicht Spekulationen, nicht Hypothesen macht, sondern die man kennenlernt, wenn man von innen aus das Vorstellen und Denken in seiner inneren Gesetzmäßigkeit beobachtet -, war in jener grauen Vorzeit das Geistig-Seelische, ohne daß die Umgebung des Huhnleibes da sein mußte, fähig, nun nicht eine mystische «Anlage», sondern ein Erstes zu bilden, das dann, als die Verhältnisse in der Umwelt sich änderten, notwendig hatte, geschützt zu sein durch den «Umleib» des Huhnes, wie er heute ist.
So rechnet der Geisteswissenschafter auf der einen Seite vollständig mit der Naturwissenschaft, muß aber auf der anderen Seite über das Naturwissenschaftliche, über das heute als naturwissenschaftlich Geltende hinausgehen, aber nicht durch Spekulationen, sondern dadurch, daß wirklich schauende Erkenntniskräfte entwickelt werden, welche eben die tatsächlichen geistigen Erfahrungen an die Stelle von Theorien und Hypothesen stellen sollen, die bloß erspekuliert sind, bloß hinzugedacht werden zu der Erfahrung. Und ist man auf diese Weise vorgerückt, und wirklich so vorgerückt, daß man in keinem Punkte sündigt gegen die gesicherten Ergebnisse der modernen Naturwissenschaft, dann rektifiziert sich für den Menschen insbesondere dasjenige, was die gegenwärtige Entwicklungslehre darbietet. Ich werde auf Schritt und Tritt heute Paradoxes zu sagen haben, aber ich will anregen. Ich setze mich der Gefahr aus, unter Umständen bespöttelt zu werden; aber ich will anregen. Ich will nur sagen, diese Geisteswissenschaft, diese Anthroposophie ist da; und sie hat, obwohl sie heute noch nicht anerkannt ist, von sich aus gewisse Forschungsergebnisse zu geben, von denen sie glaubt, aus ebenso wissenschaftlicher Berechtigung heraus reden zu können, wie die auf das Sinnliche gestützte, mit Mikroskop und Teleskop ausgerüstete Wissenschaft von ihren Ergebnissen redet. Nicht aus Überhebung, sondern aus der Sache heraus muß allerdings gesagt werden, daß es diese geisteswissenschaftliche Richtung, die hier in diesen Vorträgen vertreten werden soll, in vieler Beziehung nicht so einfach hat wie die Naturwissenschaft. Daher kann man schon verstehen, daß mancher sagt: Ja, was der sagt, ist ja wirklich recht schwer verständlich! — Gewiß, was auf das rein Tatsächliche, auf das man mit der Nase gestoßen wird, allein Rücksicht nimmt, das ist leichter verständlich; und die Natur der Sache selbst fordert es, daß Schwierigkeiten des Verständnisses in solchen Dingen liegen, wie sie hier ja nur andeutungsweise vorgebracht werden. Aber auch sachlich hat es die Anthroposophie nicht so leicht, und das zeigt sich gerade, wenn zum Beispiel in ihrem Sinne — also nicht nur theoretisch — der Mensch als Naturwesen angeschaut wird.
Ich unterschätze, wie gesagt, nicht die Entwicklungslehre. Ich glaube sogar, daß diese Entwicklungslehre zu den allerbedeutsamsten Errungenschaften der menschlichen Geistesentwickelung gehört. Und ich habe gerade deshalb von unverständiger Seite her Angriffe über Angriffe erfahren müssen, weil ich in meinem Buche «Die Rätsel der Philosophie» und in anderen meiner Schriften energisch für das Berechtigtsein der Entwicklungslehre eingetreten bin. Man sehe nur im zweiten Band meiner «Rätsel der Philosophie» nach, ob ich von irgendeinem Gesichtspunkte aus spreche, der dieser Entwicklungslehre nicht voll gerecht wird! Aber so einfach, wie sich es die reine — wie man heute sagt — empirische Naturwissenschaft macht, so einfach hat es die geisteswissenschaftliche Anthroposophie nicht. Denn wenn wir den Menschen ins Auge fassen, so müssen wir sagen: Die Vorstellung, als ob nun der Mensch, so wie er dasteht in seiner leiblichen Ausprägung, einfach hervorgegangen wäre aus Tierformen, diese wiederum aus niedereren Tierformen und so weiter — diese Vorstellung ist eine ganz und gar dilettantische gegenüber der geisteswissenschaftlichen Anthroposophie.
Will man in geisteswissenschaftlichem Sinne, wie das hier gemeint ist, die Entwickelung des Menschen als Naturwesen ins Auge fassen, dann muß man — es erscheint gewiß recht paradox, aber so ist es — diesen Menschen zunächst gliedern. Indem man — wer meine Schriften verfolgt, wird sehen, wie ich mir auf diesem Gebiete besonders Mühe gegeben habe -, indem man dasjenige, was in Goethes Metamorphosenlehre auftritt, wissenschaftlich ausgestaltet, vervollkommnet, muß man den Menschen gliedern. Man kann ihn nicht einfach als ganzen Menschen nehmen, sondern man muß eine gewisse Voraussetzung, aber eine erhärtete Voraussetzung machen. Das ist diese: Daß man das Haupt für sich nimmt, daß man sich klar wird darüber: so wie der Mensch heute vor uns steht, kann er wissenschaftlich nur durchschaut werden, wenn man das Haupt für sich nimmt und das andere gewissermaßen — nehmen Sie es zunächst als eine Hilfsvorstellung — als Anhangsorganismus. Also: das Haupt für sich; es muß gesucht werden das, was man Deszendenz, Abstammung nennen kann, für dieses Haupt für sich. Dieses Haupt des Menschen, der Kopf - es ist nicht genau gesprochen, sondern nur annähernd, weil der Kopf sich nach dem Rumpfe fortsetzt. Das ändert die Sache; aber man kann in diesen Dingen ja nur annähernd sprechen — dieses Haupt des Menschen, das ist in der Tat ein morphologisch Umgewandeltes aus weit, weit zurückliegenden anderen Formen. So daß man sagen kann: insofern der Mensch ein Kopfwesen ist, führt er auf eine weite Deszendenz zurück. Und — bezüglich der Einzelheiten verweise ich auf meine «Geheimwissenschaft im Umriß» und auf andere meiner Schriften, es zeigt sich sogar, daß das Wesen, welches in seiner Umwandlung die heutige Kopfform des Menschen möglich gemacht hat, in viel weiter zurückliegender Vorzeit gesucht werden muß als die heutigen sämtlichen Tiere oder Pflanzen, so daß wir also, indem wir den Menschen als Kopfwesen betrachten, zurückgehen müssen in weiter zurückliegende Vorzeit.
Was sich gewissermaßen als Anhangsorganismus heute am Menschen findet, das ist zum Kopf dazu gekommen — annähernd gesprochen, denn Anhangsorgane waren schon in alter Zeit da -, das hat sich unter der Voraussetzung des Hauptes gebildet. Und als das Wesen, welches in seinem Fortgang zum menschlichen Kopfwesen geworden ist und die Möglichkeit hatte, die dem heutigen Tierleib nahestehende andere menschliche Organisation zu bilden, als dieses Wesen zu dieser Organisation kam, war das die Zeit, in welcher die allgemeine Entwickelung so weit vorgeschritten war, daß nun auch die Tierwesen entstehen konnten.
Dadurch kommen wir zu einer merkwürdigen Abstammungslehre, merkwürdig aber nur gegenüber den Vorstellungen der heutigen Zeit. Wir müssen sagen: Insofern der Mensch ein Kopfwesen ist, stammt er von Vorfahren ab, die sich allmählich umgewandelt haben, die gewiß in Urzeiten anders geformt waren, als der Mensch heute geformt ist, die aber ihre Nachkommenschaft eigentlich nur im menschlichen Haupte haben. Und in der Zeit, in der sich aus den allgemeinen Entwickelungsbedingungen heraus solche Wesen bilden konnten, wie wir sie heute im Tierreiche haben, hat der Mensch zu seinem Menschtum eben auch dasjenige, was in seinem Tiertum ist, hinzugefügt.
Sie sehen hier wiederum den Ansatz - ich kann auch da nur den elementarischen Ansatz geben — zu einer Entwicklungslehre, welche ersprießt, wenn man nicht glaubt, das menschliche Haupt sei bloß gleichsam herausgewachsen aus dem übrigen Organismus, sondern: dieses menschliche Haupt ist eigentlich die Uranlage des Menschen, und der übrige Organismus ist angegliedert an dieses Haupt. Und indem sich in einer Spätzeit der Entwickelung solch ein Organismus angegliedert hat, ist der Mensch in eine Entwickelungsströmung hineingekommen, die sich in der Tat zusammenstellen läßt mit der Entwickelungsströmung, mit der Deszendenz der tierischen Wesen.
Zur wahren Erkenntnis auf diesem Gebiete führt dasjenige, was die Entwicklungslehre zutage gefördert hat. Wenn man dies kennt, wenn man es wirklich gründlich kennt, wenn man die Paläontologie, die Embryologie, all die Erfahrungen auf dem Gebiete der Muskelkunde, die Untersuchungen, die über die menschliche Schädelbeschaffenheit Aufklärung geben können, wenn man all diese Forschungen sorgfältig zu Rate zieht — viel sorgfältiger, als das die heutige äußere Naturwissenschaft kennt —, dann kommt man dazu, sich zu sagen: Gerade dasjenige, was nicht durch die Theorie — also durch die von der Naturforschung heute selbst, wie von Oscar Hertwig, widerlegte Theorie -, sondern was durch die Erfahrung vorliegt, was daliegt, was man nur aufnehmen darf und durchleuchten mit dem Lichte, das an der Geisteswissenschaft gewonnen werden kann, all das gibt ungeheuer weite Ausblicke, so daß die moderne Entwicklungslehre durchaus nicht unnötig war, durchaus nicht bloß eine Verirrung etwa war, sondern im Gegenteil zu dem Fruchtbarsten gehört, und in der Folgezeit erst zu dem Fruchtbarsten gehören wird, weil sie unerhört weit in die Geheimnisse des Weltenalls hineinleuchten wird.
Wenn ich irgend etwas gefühlsmäßig hinzufügen sollte zu dem, was ich als ein Hinausgehen der Geisteswissenschaft über die bloße, rein tatsächliche Naturwissenschaft sage, wäre es dieses: Ja, es ist wirklich diese Evolutionslehre der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts der Keim zu großen, bedeutsamen Einsichten, der Keim zu etwas, was noch gar nicht da ist im allgemeinen Menschheitsbewußtsein, was gerade die besten Anregungen gibt für eine wirklich anthroposophisch orientierte Weltanschauung. Diese Weltanschauung zeigt eben, daß diejenigen geistigen Betätigungen, von denen man glaubt, daß sie schon abschließend sind und sich nur anzuschließen brauchen an das, was sinnlich-tatsächlich gegeben ist, um es zu erklären, daß diese geistigen Betätigungen, die da walten auch in einem so ausgezeichneten Buche wie dem von Oscar Hertwig oder in anderen, gar nicht dazu führen, Fragen wirklich zu beantworten, sondern nur, Fragen in der richtigen Weise zu stellen. Beantwortet werden müssen sie dann, wenn sie richtig gestellt sind. Und die Außenwelt antwortet uns immer wiederum, wenn wir Fragen richtig zu stellen wissen. Wenn sie richtig gestellt werden, dann antwortet sie durch dasjenige, was als geistiges Schauen errungen werden kann.
Allerdings, wenn ich in dieser Weise von einer modifizierten Abstammungslehre spreche, daß man also gewissermaßen den Menschen umgekehrt vorstellen muß: seinen Ursprung suchen muß in dem, was dem Haupte zugrunde liegt und vom Haupte auszugehen hat, um den Menschen zu verstehen, während man gewöhnlich in der umgekehrten Weise dieses versucht, indem ich dieses sage, muß zu gleicher Zeit auf einer wahren, echten Vorstellung von dem gegenwärtigen Menschen gefußt werden. Und da komme ich auf ein weiteres Einzelergebnis anthroposophischer Forschung für die Naturgrundlage des Menschen.
Wenn heute von dem Verhältnis der Seele zu dem menschlichen Leibe gesprochen wird, so wird eigentlich nur in Betracht gezogen als leibliches, wie man sagt «Werkzeug», aber «Werkzeug» ist es nicht — über diese Dinge werden wir noch übermorgen sprechen -, es wird zur Seele nur hinzugesucht im Leibe als Gegenstück das Nervensystem. Und wenn Sie heute psychologische Bücher ansehen, in deren ersten Kapiteln immer eine Art physiologische Vorstufe zur Psychologie behandelt wird, so werden Sie finden, daß da eigentlich nur vom Nervensystem die Rede ist als dem «Organ der Seele».
Diejenigen verehrten Zuhörer, die mich öfter hören, wissen, wie selten ich von Persönlichem rede. Aber dies ist hier vielleicht doch notwendig, weil ich dieses Thema nur skizzenhaft charakterisieren kann: Was ich nun auf diesem Gebiete zu sagen habe, ist der Abschluß einer wirklich mehr als dreißigjährigen Forschung, die auch alles dasjenige zu Rate zieht, was auf physiologischen und verwandten Gebieten in Betracht kommt; wer die Ergebnisse der heutigen Physiologen und Biologen auf diesem Gebiete wirklich kennt, der wird, wenn nur einmal die Orientierung gegeben ist, finden, daß auf Schritt und Tritt das bewiesen wird, was ich Ihnen zu sagen habe. Indem man das Nervensystem einfach parallelisiert mit dem Seelenleben, verfährt man außerordentlich einseitig. Und niemand zeigt klarer, wie einseitig da verfahren wird, als ein Forscher, den ich ganz besonders schätze als einen der ausgezeichnetsten Psychologen, Theodor Ziehen. Weil er vom Vorurteile ausgeht, vorzugsweise vom Nervensystem zu reden, wenn er von manchen Beziehungen des Seelischen zum Leiblichen, zu den Naturgrundlagen des Menschen spricht, kommt er dazu, das Gefühlsleben, das, wirklich betrachtet, ebenso real ist wie das Denk- oder Vorstellungsleben, nur, ich möchte sagen, wie ein Anhängsel zum Vorstellungsleben zu behandeln. Theodor Ziehen kommt nicht dazu, wirklich das Gefühlsleben zu behandeln in seiner Psychologie. Anderen geht es ebenso. Sie sprechen dann von der «Gefühlsbetonung der Vorstellungen»; die Vorstellungen, die ihr leibliches Gegenbild im Nervensystem haben, seien «gefühlsbetont»; man habe nicht an ein besonders leibliches Gegenstück des Gefühlslebens zu denken.
Und gar erst — lesen Sie nach in der Psychologie von Theodor Ziehen oder in anderen Büchern, ich könnte eine ganze Reihe anführen, wirklich ausgezeichnete Schriften auf diesem Gebiete —, wenn diese Persönlichkeiten auf den Willen zu sprechen kommen, werden Sie sehen, daß da alle Möglichkeit entfällt, von dem Willen wirklich zu sprechen, der ein ganz reales Gebiet im seelischen Erleben ist. Der Wille entfällt einfach Theodor Ziehen, indem er seine physiologisch-psychologischen Dinge schreibt; er wird einfach hinwegdisputiert; er ist gar nicht da für ihn; er ist gewissermaßen nur da als ein Spiel der Vorstellungen. So wird durch den Einfluß einer Einseitigkeit etwas, was ganz offenbar in der Erfahrung da ist, vergewaltigt, wie durch solche Forschungen auch andere Dinge wesentlich vergewaltigt werden.
Wenn man aber wirklich alles zu Rate zieht, was die Physiologie, diese mustergültige Wissenschaft, gerade bis heute schon geleistet hat — wenn auch noch vieles fraglich ist und fragwürdig ist —, wenn man alles zu Rate zieht, was nur nicht in der richtigen Weise beleuchtet ist, dann kommt man dazu — ich kann das Ergebnis nur skizzieren —, daß der ganze menschliche Organismus ein Gegenstück zu der ganzen menschlichen Seele ist. In meinem letzten Buche «Von Seelenrätseln», das in den nächsten Wochen erscheinen wird, vielleicht sogar schon ausgegeben ist, habe ich in den Schlußkapiteln Grenzfragen der gewöhnlichen Wissenschaft und der Anthroposophie behandelt, und unter diesen Grenzfragen, auch allerdings nur ergebnismäßig, was über die eben berührte Frage zu sagen ist.
Dagegen ist gar nichts zu sagen, daß das Vorstellungsleben sein leibliches Gegenstück zunächst in dem Nervensystem hat, obwohl der Zusammenhang ganz anders vorzustellen ist, als das die heutige Wissenschaft tut; davon werde ich dann übermorgen sprechen. Wenn man ein leibliches Gegenstück für das Vorstellungsleben sucht, so hat man das Nervensystem dazu zu suchen.
Nicht so für das Gefühlsleben! Fast, möchte ich sagen, schrecke ich davor zurück, etwas so Weittragendes in so kurzen Worten zu sagen, etwas, was sich mir selber ergeben hat nicht in jahrelanger, sondern jahrzehntelanger Forschung. Wenn man vom Gefühlsleben spricht, so kann man nicht in demselben Sinne, wie man eine Beziehung sucht zwischen dem Vorstellungs- und dem Nervenleben, irgendeine Beziehung suchen zwischen diesem Gefühlsleben und dem Nervenleben. Da ist nur ein mittelbarer Bezug selbstverständlich ein Bezug, aber er ist nur mittelbar. Das Gefühlsleben, es erscheint unter dem Vorurteil der heutigen Wissenschaft fast unglaublich, steht in einem ähnlichen direkten Bezuge wie das Vorstellungsleben zum Nervensystem zu dem, was man nennen könnte den Atmungsrhythmus in allen seinen Verzweigungen. So wie man bei dem Nervensystem in die feinsten Verzweigungen zu gehen hat, so natürlich auch bei dem, was rhythmische Bewegungen sind, die nur in dem Atmungsrhythmus ihren Ausgangspunkt haben und sich dann überall verästeln und verzweigen, in das Gehirn hineinwirken. Sehr interessant sind da ja die Vorstellungen von Comte über die Mechanik des menschlichen Körpers. In diesem rhythmischen Spielen von Bewegungen im Menschen, die eigentlich alle dependent sind vom Atmungsrhythmus, in dem, was als solche rhythmischen, den Blutrhythmus übergreifenden Bewegungen vorgeht, hat man das leibliche Gegenstück zu suchen für das Gefühlsleben.
Ich weiß, sehr verehrte Anwesende, daß sich nun scheinbar unzählige Einwände gegen das, was ich eben gesagt habe, erheben. Aber diese Einwände lassen sich alle widerlegen. Ich will da zunächst auf einen aufmerksam machen, nur andeutungsweise. Leicht könnte man zum Beispiel sagen: Nun ja, Musik beruht eigentlich in ihrer ästhetischen Wirkung auf dem Gefühl; aber dieses Gefühl wird doch angeregt durch die Tonwahrnehmung, also durch einen äußeren Wahrnehmungseindruck, der sich selbstverständlich in seiner Wirkung im Nervensystem fortsetzt; da siehst du ja — könnte man einwenden -, wie du fehlgehst: du behauptest, daß etwas, was in seiner ästhetischen Wirkung entschieden auf dem Gefühlsleben beruht, mit dem Atmungsrhythmus zusammenhänge, während doch die musikalische Wahrnehmung zugrunde liegt, die auf dem Umweg durch das Ohr und den Gehörnerv gewonnen wird! — Das ist nur eine Illusion, wenn man diesen Einwand macht, denn der wirkliche Vorgang ist ein viel komplizierterer. In solche Dinge leitet eben nur jenes Schauen hinein, welches durch die Kräfte orientiert ist, die man im schauenden Bewußtsein gewinnt: In unserem Gehirn begegnet sich der Atmungsrhythmus mit dem, was im Nervensystem vorgeht. Und das musikalische Gefühlserlebnis entsteht nur aus dieser Wechselwirkung, aus diesem Zusammentreffen desjenigen, was sich vom Atmungsrhythmus hineinerstreckt in das Nervenleben, mit dem Nervenbau. Indem dieses reagiert auf den Atmungsrhythmus, entsteht das musikalische Gefühlserlebnis. So lassen sich also wirklich die Gefühlserlebnisse erklären, wenn man, wie gesagt, den Atmungsrhythmus, das Atmungsleben überhaupt, ebenso als leibliches Gegenstück ansieht für das Gefühlsleben, wie man das Nervensystem anzusehen hat als leibliches Gegenstück für das Vorstellungsleben.
Und nun kommen wir zum Wollen. Da stellt sich heraus, wenn man alle physiologischen Erwägungen so prüft, wie das orientierte Erkenntnisvermögen des schauenden Bewußtseins das vermag, daß alles, was als Wollen erlebt wird von der Seele, sein leibliches Gegenbild in Stoffwechselvorgängen hat. Aus Stoffwechselvorgängen, Atmungsrhythmusvorgängen, Nervenvorgängen, setzt sich aber im wesentlichen — mit Ausnahme von zwei Dingen, die ich gleich nachher erwähnen werde - das leibliche Leben zusammen.
Schwierig wird die Sache nur deshalb, weil selbstverständlich auch der Nerv so erklärt werden muß, daß sich das Ernährungsleben, das Stoffwechselleben, in den Nerv hinein fortsetzt. Aber nicht die Ernährung des Nervs, nicht der Stoffwechselvorgang des Nervs ist es, der das leibliche Gegenbild des Vorstellungslebens ist, sondern ein ganz anderer Vorgang. Ich habe darauf aufmerksam gemacht in meinem Buche «Von Seelenrätseln»: insofern der Nerv auf den Stoffwechsel angewiesen ist, ist er nur ein Vermittler des Willensvorgangs. Weil sich ein System — Stoffwechselsystem, rhythmischer Atmungsvorgang, Nervensystem - in das andere hineinschiebt, die Systeme nicht räumlich nebeneinander liegen, sondern ineinander übergehen, sich ineinander erstrecken, wird die Betrachtung besonders schwierig. Aber im wesentlichen ist dieses so: Im Nerv ist dasjenige, was dem Vorstellungsleben zugrunde liegt, nicht die Tatsache, daß er vom Rhythmus berührt wird, nicht die Tatsache, daß er ernährt wird, sondern eine noch ganz andere innere Tätigkeit; in den feinsten Verzweigungen des Atmungsrhythmus ist es dieser Atmungsrhythmus selbst, der dem Gefühlsleben zugrunde liegt, und alles, was im Organismus bis in die feinsten Verzweigungen hinein als Stoffwechsel verzeichnet wird, ist das leibliche Gegenbild der Willensvorgänge.
Da haben wir die ganze Seele mit dem ganzen menschlichen Leib in Beziehung gesetzt. Und vom Gesichtspunkte jener anthroposophischen Geisteswissenschaft, die ich vertrete, glaube ich — nicht anders glaube ich es, als wie man auf wirklich streng wissenschaftlichem Gebiete glaubt -, daß heute schon die Tatsachen der Physiologie genügen, um das, was ich eben auseinandergesetzt habe, voll zu begründen. Und überzeugt bin ich davon, daß die empirischen Wissenschaften, wenn man sie mit diesen ÖOrientierungslinien weiter fortschreitend ausbauen wird, nach allen Richtungen hin für das Leben ungeheuer befruchtend werden können: Medizin, Psychiatrie, alle möglichen Gebiete werden bedeutsame Anregungen erfahren können, wenn man in dieser Weise die ganze menschliche Seele mit dem ganzen menschlichen Leibe zusammennehmen wird.
Nach zwei Seiten hin fällt aus dem menschlichen Organismus heraus: das, was ich die Sinneszone und das Bewegungsleben nennen möchte. Und auf sehr schwache Füße gestellt ist die gegenwärtige Wissenschaft insbesondere in der Sinneslehre auf der einen Seite und der Bewegungslehre auf der anderen Seite. Diese, ich möchte sagen, zwei Pole des menschlichen Wesens werden sehr wenig durchschaut, weder von psychologischen noch von physiologischen oder ähnlichen Forschern, weil sowohl in der Sinneszone, im Gebiete des Sinneslebens, wie im Gebiete des Bewegungslebens der Mensch nicht mehr völlig sich selber, sondern bereits der Außenwelt angehört, sich mit seiner Seele in die Außenwelt hineinlebt: indem der Mensch Bewegungen ausführt, liegt in der Bewegung ein Gleichgewichts- oder ein dynamischer Zustand, durch den der Mensch eingegliedert ist in das Gebiet oder in das Bewegungsspiel der Kräfte der Außenwelt; und indem der Mensch seelisch aus dem bloßen Nervenleben in das Leben der Sinneszone hinein übergreift, das heißt, indem die Seele in die eigentlichen Sinnesorgane hinein sich erlebt, geschieht es, daß wirklich der Mensch sein eigenes Gebiet überschreitet. Die Sinne ragen wie Golfe der Außenwelt in unser Leben herein, und erst wenn man dieses berücksichtigen wird, wird man zu einer vernünftigen Sinneslehre kommen, die auf den Wegen, die heute die Naturwissenschaft wandelt, gar nicht gewonnen werden kann.
Ich habe nun nicht allgemeine Prinzipien erörtern, nicht allgemeine Charakteristiken geben wollen, gerade für die Schilderung des Verhältnisses der Anthroposophie zur Naturwissenschaft und zur Naturgrundlage des Menschen, sondern ich habe, trotz allen Gefahren, die so etwas in sich beschließt, einzelne konkrete Ergebnisse und Ergebnisgebiete herausgehoben, um durch das Konkrete zu charakterisieren, auf welche Weise die Anthroposophie sich hinstellen will neben die anerkannte Naturwissenschaft. Allerdings wird daraus ersichtlich sein, daß manches Vorurteil und auch manche Vorempfindung und Vorneigung und Vorgewohnheit auf wissenschaftlichem Gebiete zu überwinden sein wird, wenn Anthroposophie verstanden werden soll. Heute ist das Sinnliche — ich meine das Sinnlich-Tatsächliche der Anschauung, nicht das Sinnliche auf moralischem Gebiete — noch viel mächtiger, als es damals war, als die ganze Welt gegen den Kopernikanismus einwandte, daß er ja dem Sinnenschein widerspreche, und ihn nicht annahm. Kopernikus hat dem Sinnenschein widersprochen, indem er für die äußere Sinneswelt etwas, was der äußere Sinnenschein nicht geben kann, aufstellen mußte. Die Geisteswissenschaft ist genötigt, noch in einer anderen Beziehung über den äußeren Sinnenschein hinauszuführen. Sie wird gewiß auf diesem Gebiete Widerstand über Widerstand finden. Und man kann immer mit einem solchen Vortrage nur einzelne Anregungen geben; aber ich bitte Sie, das zu berücksichtigen, daß ich eben Anregungen geben will. Von einem fertig vorliegenden Standpunkte nun diese Anregungen zu kritisieren, das ist eine billige Sache! Sie können selbstverständlich in Grund und Boden kritisiert werden; und alles, was als solche Kritik vorgebracht werden kann, das könnte ich selber — ganz selbstverständlich — vorbringen. Aber auf der anderen Seite wird gesehen werden können, daß dasjenige, was in der Naturwissenschaft lebt, wenn man es nur nicht aufhalten will, sich fortentwickeln kann zu einer weit ausgreifenden Enthüllung von tiefgehenden Weltengeheimnissen.
Wie fruchtbar, wie bedeutsam eine solche für das ganze menschliche Leben im weitesten Umfange werden muß, davon werde ich übermorgen zu sprechen haben, wo ich die praktische Anwendung auf die Gebiete der Moral, des sozialen, auch des religiösen Lebens, des politischen Lebens, der Freiheitslehre des Willens und andere praktische Gebiete auseinanderzusetzen haben werde.
Ich mußte mich der Gefahr aussetzen, mißverstanden zu werden, indem ich einzelne konkrete Ergebnisse anführte. Denn heute spricht gar vieles gegen das Aufsteigen des Menschen in die Gebiete des wahrhaftigen und echten, des tatsächlichen Geisteslebens. Und man glaubt heute, nur ein aufgeklärter Mensch sein zu können, wenn man über die tiefste Frage des Seelenlebens, über die Unsterblichkeitsfrage — auch darüber werde ich übermorgen zu sprechen haben - und über andere Fragen sagt: das entziehe sich eben wissenschaftlicher Beurteilung, dazu reiche das menschliche Erkenntnisvermögen nicht aus.
Der geistreiche Fritz Mauthner hat ja über dieses menschliche Erkenntnisvermögen in seinem «Wörterbuch der Philosophie» geschrieben, das wirklich anregend zu lesen ist, weil man sich in eine geistige Sphäre versetzt glaubt, in der man immerfort und immerfort im Kreise sich dreht, ohne irgendwie zu etwas zukommen, sondern, wenn man glaubt, zu einem Viertelsergebnis zukommen, wird es widerlegt und man wird weitergeführt und dreht sich weiter im Kreise. Mauthner, der aber doch das große Verdienst hat, gerade gezeigt zu haben, wie überall ungenügend ist, was schon als «abgeschlossene Wissenschaft» vorliegt - Mauthner glaubt sogar, dieses Sprechen vom Geiste sei eine raffinierte Erfindung Hegels, so ungefähr sagt er: Mit dem Begriff des Geistes, wie wir ihn heute auffassen, habe erst Hegel die Philosophie infiziert; den älteren Geistbegriff leite man nur von dem Begriff des Heiligen Geistes ab. — Und er findet, daß es mit vielen, die sich heute dünken, kritische Geister zu sein, besonders aufgeklärte Geister zu sein, ja, Geister zu sein — vielleicht sagen sie selber nicht so, denn den «Geis t» lassen sie ja nicht gelten, also: Menschen zu sein, welche auf der vollen Höhe der Wissenschaft stehen -, Mauthner sagt, mit vielen von diesen sei es so: Der Mensch will durch Verstand und Vernunft erkennen; aber «der Verstand ist eine silberne Axt ohne Stiel, und die Vernunft ist ein goldener Stiel ohne Axt», und mit diesen zwei unvollkommenen Dingen will der Mensch irgendwie in das Wesen der Welt eindringen!
Solche Leute berufen sich dann sehr gern auf den umfassenden Naturbegriff, den Goethe aufgestellt hat. Auch bei Fritz Mauthner finden wir, wie er Goethe zitiert, um ihm die Vorstellung zuzuschreiben: daß auch er, Goethe, den Menschen bloß als Naturwesen angesehen habe! Aber selbst in dem Aufsatze «Die Natur», den Fritz Mauthner zitiert, finden sich Sätze über die Natur wie dieser: «Gedacht hat sie und sinnt beständig», wenn auch nicht als Mensch, sondern als Natur. Eine solche Natur, wie sie Goethe gedacht hat, die könnte man schon hinnehmen! Die ist etwas anderes als die Natur, welche vielfach der heutigen Naturwissenschaft zugrunde liegt. Und gar, wenn wir ins Auge fassen, wie Goethe zu Schiller gesagt hat: Wenn meine naturwissenschaftlichen Gesetze Ideen sein sollen, so sehe ich meine Ideen mit Augen -, so können wir aus solcher Gesinnung heraus auch den Naturalismus annehmen, denn er ist ein Naturalismus, der den Spiritualismus durchaus nicht ausschließt, sondern einschließt. Und ich glaube, daß gerade dasjenige, was Goethe noch in den Elementen in seiner groß angelegten Metamorphosenlehre gewollt hat, was er bis zu einem hohen Grade, aber eben nur in den Elementen, ausgestaltet hat, daß dieses, weiter ausgestaltet, herübergenommen ins Geistige, die wirkliche Grundlage ist für eine wahre, anthroposophisch orientierte Geisteswissenschaft.
Mit dem, was ich heute über die Abstammung des Menschen und über die Beziehung der Seele des Menschen zum Leibe sagte, weiß ich mich im Einklang mit dem Goetheanismus, wenn auch mit einem bis in unsere Zeiten herein und in wissenschaftlicher Gestalt fortentwickelten Goetheanismus.
Und denen, die in ihrer scheinbar aufgeklärt-kritischen Abweisung einer jeglichen wirklichen geistigen Erkenntnis glauben, sich auf Goethe berufen zu können, denen muß man doch sagen — lassen Sie mich damit meine heutigen Ausführungen beschließen: Betrachtet nur Goethes Gesinnung in ihrem tiefsten Wesen. Dasjenige, was ihr glaubt, bei ihm zu treffen, und was ihr in euch auch habt, das wird schon getroffen mit seinen Worten, die er an einen anderen Forscher richtete, einen sehr verdienten Forscher, der den Ausspruch getan hatte:
«Ins Innre der Natur
Dringt kein erschaffner Geist,...
Glückselig, wem sie nur
Die äußre Schale weist.»
Goethe sagte dagegen:
Das hör’ ich sechzig Jahre wiederholen,
Ich fluche drauf, aber verstohlen;...
Natur hat weder Kern
Noch Schale,
Alles ist sie mit einemmale;
Dich prüfe du nur allermeist,
Ob du Kern oder Schale seist!
Entwickelt in dieser Goetheschen Gesinnung der Mensch seinen Kern, dann dringt er auch vor, wenn auch nur in unendlich langer, ernster und aufrichtiger Forschungsarbeit - in den Kern, in das Wesen der Natur. Denn dieses Wesen der Natur, es prägt sich aus im Menschen. Und was sich im Menschen spiegelt, es ist, richtig verstanden, nichts anderes als dieses Wesen der Natur. Geist ist nichts anderes als der Natur Blüte und Frucht. Natur ist in gewisser Beziehung des Geistes Wurzel.
Das ist auch wahrer Goetheanismus! Und ihn wird Geisteswissenschaft eben in wissenschaftlicher Gestalt aus zu bilden haben.
Fragenbeantwortung
Frage: Wenn das Bewußtsein in Korrelation stehe mit dem Tod, wie verhält sich denn das, daß bei den Tieren auch der Tod eintritt und doch das Bewußtsein der Tiere unter allen Umständen verschieden angenommen werden muß von dem des Menschen?
Wenn ich übermorgen sprechen werde über praktische Fragen, so gedenke ich auch - ich schrecke zwar immer davor zurück —, kurz eingehen zu können auf verschiedene Fragen, welche sich auf einen heute sehr häufig vorkommenden Begriff beziehen: den Begriff des «Unbewußten», der ja auch in der hier in Zürich sattsam bekannten Psychoanalyse, analytischen Psychologie, eine große Rolle spielt. Auf diesem Gebiete treten einem bedeutsame, tief einschneidende Fragen entgegen; und wir werden übermorgen sehen, wenigstens andeutungsweise, wie sich das, was von seiten der Psychoanalyse zur Beantwortung dieser einschneidenden Fragen versucht wird, zu diesen Fragen selbst verhält. Heute will ich nur, in Anlehnung an das eben Gefragte, den Begriff des Unbewußten heranziehen. Eduard von Hartmann hat ja auch philosophisch den Begriff des «unbewußten Geistes» aufgestellt und legt also zugrunde dem Dasein, man möchte sagen, erstens die Natur, zweitens den bewußten Geist, der aber immer eine Naturgrundlage haben muß, und den unbewußten Geist, der rein geistig, aber eben unbewußt ist.
Nun handelt es sich aber darum, daß Geisteswissenschaft mit dem Begriff des «Unbewußten» als solchem auch wiederum nichts anzufangen weiß. «Unbewußter Geist» ist für Geisteswissenschaft ungefähr dasselbe wie «kopfloser Mensch» auf natürlichem Gebiete. Es läßt sich «Geist» zwar abstrakt denken, selbstverständlich, ohne Bewußtsein, geradeso wie man den Kopf des Menschen abstrahieren kann. Man kann auch aufzeichnen den kopflosen Organismus. Und es gibt ja sogar Menschen, die hysterisch partiell blind sind, also nicht organisch blind, sondern hysterisch blind, die mit dem Fehler behaftet sind, daß sie, wenn sie auf der Straße gehen, bloß den Körper des Menschen sehen und bei keinem Menschen einen Kopf. Solche Menschen gibt es, die an dieser besonderen Form einer hysterischen Erkrankung leiden: sie sehen bloß den Körper und keinen Kopf, also alle Menschen kopflos. Sie sehen, der Augenschein könnte sogar für einzelne Ausnahmemenschen den Beweis liefern, daß man sich auch eine menschliche Wirklichkeit denken könnte ohne Köpfe. Aber es ist eben keine Wirklichkeit. — So ist der «unbewußte Geist» eben keine Wirklichkeit, kann niemals eine Wirklichkeit sein. Wie das dann weiterführt, darüber soll übermorgen einiges gesprochen werden. Aber nun kommen wir zu der Frage, die gestellt worden ist: Tiere haben als solche durchaus zwar nicht ein menschliches Bewußtsein, aber ein Bewußtsein. Ich habe aber schon heute bemerken müssen bei einer Gelegenheit: Geisteswissenschaft hat es vielfach nicht so gut, wie es die heutige anerkannte Wissenschaft hat, die alle Dinge mehr begrifflich behandelt und weniger real; selbst in der Richtung des Denkens muß Geisteswissenschaft anders vorgehen, als man heute gewöhnt ist. In den Physikbüchern, sagte ich, heißt es: Körper sind undurchdringlich, das heißt, an der Stelle des Raums, wo ein Körper ist, kann nicht ein anderer sein. — Diese Definition als solche kann Geisteswissenschaft nicht unmittelbar als solche akzeptieren, sondern sie muß so sagen aus ihrer Orientierung heraus: Ein Körper oder ein Wesen, welches einen Raum so ausfüllt, daß zu gleicher Zeit in diesem Raum kein anderer sein kann, ist eben undurchdringlich. Also es verwandelt sich ein als Definition meinetwillen Gedachtes für den Geisteswissenschafter einfach in ein Postulat oder ähnliches.
Nun muß man sich klar sein darüber: Tiere haben zwar kein menschliches Bewußtsein, aber Bewußtsein. Nun handelt es sich darum, daß, wer im heutigen Sinne denkt, mit den heutigen Denkgewohnheiten, denkt: Tod ist Tod. Menschen sterben, Tiere sterben und sogar Pflanzen läßt man sterben. Ja, so einfach liegt die Sache für die Geisteswissenschaft nicht. Da kann man nicht aus der Gleichheit des Begriffsinhaltes auf die Gleichheit in der Realität schließen. Innerlich betrachtet, der Realität nach betrachtet, ist der Tod des Menschen etwas ganz anderes als der Tod des Tieres. Das ist konkret betrachtet! Und bei der Pflanze von Tod zu sprechen, das hat bei der Geisteswissenschaft im Grunde genommen genau denselben Sinn, als wenn man bei einer Uhr von Tod sprechen würde, die auch einmal «abstirbt»; nicht wahr, die kann ja auch einmal «absterben». Also das müßte aufhören. Das ist nicht der Begriff des Todes! Sondern der Begriff des Todes schließt vieles ein, was nun den Tod beim Menschen zu etwas wesentlich anderem macht.
Und nun kommt folgendes in Betracht: Das Tier hat ein Bewußtsein, welches im wesentlichen so ist, daß es das, was der Mensch in die Sinneszone hineinschickt und in der Sinneszone, die ich heute erwähnt habe, gesondert erlebt, daß es das nicht in der Sinneszone erlebt, sondern daß das, was das Tier in der Sinneszone erlebt, gleichartig ist mit dem, was es auch als Vorstellungsleben hat. Jene strenge Scheidung zwischen der Wahrnehmung und der Vorstellung, wie man sie beim Menschen ziehen kann, die ist für das Tier nicht berechtigt. Das läßt sich erstens durch die Anschauung, durch das schauende Bewußtsein unmittelbar erkennen; auf der anderen Seite aber erkennen Sie es auch anatomisch, physiologisch. Ich erinnere Sie nur daran, daß, sagen wir, das Auge für das Tier eine ganz andere innerliche Organisation hat als bei Menschen. Es sind beim Menschen gewisse Inhalte des Auges zurückgenommen in die innere Organisation, mehr in die Nervenorganisation, beim Tiere sind sie herausgedehnt ins Auge. Sie finden bei gewissen Tieren den Fächer, den Schwertfortsatz: das ist das äußere, anatomische Gebilde, das zeigen könnte, wie das Vitale beim Tier bis in die Sinneszone hineingeht. Beim Menschen zieht sich dies Vitale zurück, so daß der Mensch in der Sinneszone - ich bitte das ausdrücklich zu berücksichtigen — die Anwesenheit seiner Seele so erlebt, daß er in dieser Sinneszone etwas ganz anderes erlebt, als das Tier in der Sinneszone erlebt. Und dieses, was der Mensch in der Sinneszone erlebt und dessen weitere Ausbildung dann das imaginative, das inspirierte, das intuitive Bewußtsein ist, das, was dann wiederum in dem Vorstellungsleben und in dem Erinnerungsleben fortgesetzt wird, dieses Erleben in der Sinneszone, das ist dasjenige, was dem menschlichen Bewußtsein eine ganz andere Färbung gibt — wenn ich mich des Ausdrucks bedienen darf -,, als sie das tierische Bewußtsein hat.
Man muß überhaupt viele Begriffe rektifizieren. Wenn man heute einen Menschen frägt: Was sind die geistigsten Vorstellungen, die am allerwenigsten mit der Leibesgrundlage zusammenhängen? - na, ich glaube, eine große Anzahl von Menschen werden einverstanden sein, wenn man sagt: Die allerphilosophischesten Vorstellungen sind die allergeistigsten! — Sehen Sie, von allen Vorstellungen sind für die Geisteswissenschaft gerade die philosophischen Vorstellungen — die abstraktesten, auch die mathematischen Vorstellungen, diejenigen, die am allermeisten an den physischen Leib gebunden sind! Und wenn es nur philosophische Vorstellungen gäbe, so könnte man absolut Materialist sein; denn die sind eigentlich nur leiblich und haben auch nur eine Bedeutung zwischen Geburt und Tod. Was man gewöhnlich für das Allergeistigste ansieht, das hat seine Begründung in der physischen Welt, im physischen Leib.
Das ist aber das Wesentliche, daß der Mensch als seelisches Wesen an seinem Sinnesleben einen solchen Anteil hat, daß er im Sinnesleben, wo sich die äußere Natur wie ein Golf hineinerstreckt, weil die Vitalität sich zurückgezogen hat, fortwährend tatsächlich in der Sinneszone schon den Tod erlebt. Und insofern sich diese Sinneszone nach innen spiegelt, durchdringt das Ergebnis, das Bewußtseinsergebnis dieser Sinneszone nach innen das Seelenleben mit dem, was ich atomistischen Tod genannt habe.
Also so ist das zu verstehen: daß dem Leben in der Sinneszone beim Menschen sich beimischt das Todesphänomen, was berechtigt, beim Menschen den Tod und das Bewußtsein zusammenzubringen, während beim Tier zusammengebracht werden muß: nicht der spontane Tod - wie er beim Menschen auch eintreten kann — mit dem Bewußtsein, sondern beim Tiere muß zusammengebracht werden das allmähliche Erlöschen der Fortpflanzungskraft mit demjenigen, was das Bewußtsein ist. Und dann, wenn die Fortpflanzungskraft erloschen ist, tritt für das Tier der Tod ein, während beim Menschen ein späterer Eintritt des Todesphänomens hinzuerworben ist, als das bei irgendeinem Tiere eben der Fall ist. Der Mensch steht da auf einem ganz anderen Boden.
Also das möchte ich besonders betonen: Eine richtige Einsicht in das Verhältnis zwischen Geburt und Tod bekommt man nur, wenn man die spezifische Eigentümlichkeit des menschlichen Bewußtseins, die zusammenhängt mit dem besonderen Erleben in der Sinneszone, zusammenbringt mit dem viel vitaleren Erleben in der Sinneszone die das Tier hat, so daß dem tierischen Bewußtsein nicht dasjenige eigentlich, wenn ich so sagen darf, beigemischt ist, was dem menschlichen Bewußtsein beigemischt ist als immerfort in ihm Tod wirkendes. Und das wird wiederum von der anderen Seite her beleuchtet, weil beim Tiere sich nicht polarisch von der anderen Seite eine unsterbliche Seele hin einmischt in das Todesphänomen, was beim Menschen der Fall ist.
Frage: Kann Geisteswissenschaft uns zu dem modernen Entropiebegriff der Physik etwas sagen?
Was den modernen Entropiebegriff betrifft, so muß zunächst gesagt werden, daß dasjenige, was in den Begriff der Entropie eingeschlossen wird, vor allen Dingen nur abstrahiert ist aus der Vorstellung der unorganischen Naturwissenschaft. Wenn wir also den Entropiebegrift so fassen: ein Endzustand des gegenwärtigen Werdens würde sich dadurch vollziehen, daß beim Übergang von mechanischer Energie in Wärmeenergie immer mehr Wärme zurückbleibt, so daß zum Schluß der Weltenbestand nur ein Wärmezustand sein kann, so haben wir es da zu tun mit einer Abstraktion, rein aus unorganischer Gesetzmäßigkeit heraus. Als solche braucht dagegen nichts eingewendet zu werden vom Standpunkte der Geisteswissenschaft. Die Anhänger des Entropiebegriffes wissen ja selber, daß diese Festsetzung des Endzustandes notwendig macht, daß man dann auch einen Anfangszustand annimmt; sowohl logisch wie auch naturwissenschaftlich ist es dann notwendig, daß, wenn man auf diese Weise alles in den Wärmetod hineintreiben läßt, man auch einen Anfangszustand annimmt.
Nun handelt es sich darum, daß geisteswissenschaftlich sich folgendes ergibt, ich gehe auch da gleich in das Konkrete ein: Erstens kann Geisteswissenschaft nichts anfangen nach ihren Beobachtungen mit einer Vorstellung, die heute auf dem Gebiete der unorganischen Naturspekulation gang und gäbe ist, das ist die Vorstellung der Zerstäubung von Energien, wobei man immer denkt, daß die Zerstäubung von Energien ins Unendliche auslaufen kann. Wenn ich also von Energien spreche, denke ich mir immer im Sinne der heutigen Naturwissenschaft ein ins Unendliche Gehendes. Mit diesem Begriff kann Geisteswissenschaft nach ihren Erfahrungen nichts anfangen, weil alle Energien geisteswissenschaftlich, gewissermaßen in ihrer Morphogene betrachtet, sich herausstellen als elastisch. Das heißt, Energien, die sich ausbreiten, zerstäuben sich nicht ins Unendliche, sondern nur bis zu einer endlichen Grenze und kehren dann in sich selbst zurück. Das kann allerdings nach so langer Zeit geschehen, daß es zunächst für das, was als unsere bevorstehende Erdenperiode in Betracht kommt, nicht in Frage steht. Aber tatsächlich muß man auf geisteswissenschaftlichem Gebiete sehen, daß der Begriff des Zerstäubens ins Unendliche nebulos ist, daß jegliche Energien, die sich ausbreiten, sich nicht ins Unendliche zerstäuben, sondern wieder zurückkehren in sich selbst. Wenn dieser Begriff angewendet wird auf dem Entropiegebiet, dann haben wir im Endzustand auch wiederum das andere, polarisch Entgegengesetzte gegeben: daß gewissermaßen die zerstäubenden Energien wieder in sich zurückgehen können. Das ist das eine.
Das andere ist aber das folgende. Wenn Sie meine «Geheimwissenschaft im Umriß» zur Hand nehmen, werden Sie finden, daß in der 'Tat — nach einem geistigen Beobachtungssystem, welches nur eine weitere Ausgestaltung desjenigen ist, was ich heute elementar angeführt habe -, indem ich zurückgehe und geisteswissenschaftlich einen Anfangszustand konstruiere, es ist nicht konstruiert, sondern geschaut, so ist dieser Anfangszustand, den ich mit einem Terminus technicus «Saturnzustand» nenne, dargestellt als ein reiner Wärmezustand. Und aus diesem Wärmezustand geht die ganze folgende Entwickelung hervor. Kommt nun die Physik mit ihrem Entropiebegriff zu einem WärmeEndzustand, so kommt sie zu einem Endzustand, den ich selber annehmen muß als Anfangszustand. Die Folge davon ist, daß dann wieder angefangen werden muß: wie es davon ausgeht. Man kommt eben nicht zu einem «Anfang und Ende», sondern Anfang und Ende sind nur ein Glied einer weitergehenden Entwickelung. Der eintretende Endzustand würde dann nur der Ausgangspunkt sein für eine weitergehende Entwickelung.
Frage: Wäre es nicht möglich, daß Sie den Menschen auch als einfachen Organismus so entstehen lassen könnten, daß es nicht notwendig wäre, daß er zuerst als Kopfwesen entsteht und dann ein Anhängsel dazu kommt? Die Naturwissenschaft arbeitet ja auch mit sehr langen Zeiträumen und einer unendlich langen Entwickelungsperiode, und ich glaube, daß man da ebensogut den Menschen als einheitlichen Organismus entstehen lassen könnte.
Wenn man eine solche Angelegenheit in dieser Allgemeinheit behandelt, so kann man natürlich immer anführen, was eben der Herr angeführt hat. Ich betone ausdrücklich, daß es sich heute für mich darum gehandelt hat, positive, konkrete Ergebnisse der anthroposophisch orientierten Geisteswissenschaft auseinanderzusetzen, also einzelne Beispiele positiver Ergebnisse anzuführen. Ein solches Beispiel positiver Ergebnisse ist eben dieses: daß der Mensch, wenn man ihn nicht nur theoretisch als Naturwesen verstehen will — darauf bezog sich ja mein heutiger Vortrag -, nicht verstanden werden kann, wenn man ihn in der heute üblichen Weise betrachtet. Als «einheitliches Wesen», das ist ja nicht der Gegensatz, wird der Mensch selbstverständlich auch dann betrachtet, wenn man ihn als ein Kopfwesen mit Anhängsel — ich sagte ja, es ist das annäherungsweise gesprochen — ansieht. Das, was wesentlich dabei ist, ist: wo man den Ausgangspunkt sucht für die menschliche Entwickelung, nicht, ob man ihn als «einheitliches Wesen» betrachtet, was man also vom Menschen weiter zurückliegend sucht. Wenn man das, was heute metamorphosiert im Haupte auftritt, weiter zurückliegend sucht, und das übrige als eine Erwerbung, so wird dadurch der Mensch als ein Naturwesen eben ein anderes Wesen, als wenn man ihn entwicklungstheoretisch in die Weltentwickelung so hineinstellt, wie ihn der heutige triviale Darwinismus, die triviale Deszendenztheorie noch hineinstellt.
Die langen Zeiträume machen es nicht aus. Lange Zeiträume sind für die heutigen Hypothesen eben auch etwas rein Hypothetisches. Die Zeit kann erst dann irgendeine Bedeutung haben innerhalb einer Erklärung, wenn man imstande ist, die Zeit aus anderen, konkreten Voraussetzungen herauszuholen, wenn man gewissermaßen das Vorher und Nachher aus dem Konkreten heraus zu gestalten vermag, nicht aber wenn man einfach eine Entwickelungsströmung aufstellt und dann die Zeit hereinnimmt wie etwas Äußerliches. Die Deszendenztheoretiker sagen ja selbst: Die Zeit steht einem unbegrenzt zur Verfügung. Selbstverständlich steht einem die Zeit unbegrenzt zur Verfügung. Aber es frägt sich, ob das, was einem für den Gedanken zur Verfügung steht, auch in der Wirklichkeit dieselbe konkrete Rolle spielt, indem wirklich der konkrete Mensch betrachtet wird.
Es gliedert sich das Konkrete selbst so, daß einem in dem Entwickelungsprozeß das, was ich Anhangorganismus genannt habe - es ist eben ein Annäherungsausdruck -, sich als das jüngere herausstellt und der Kopforganismus als das ältere. Dadurch gestaltet sich die Zeit selber. Die Deszendenz des Kopforganismus geht in eine größere Vorzeit zurück als das, was jünger ist. Es handelt sich wirklich darum, daß man auf geisteswissenschaftlihem Gebiete in Erwägung ziehen muß, daß das Denken tatsächlich und konkret wird. Ich möchte auch heute wieder betonen, daß man nicht anders vorrücken kann in der Geisteswissenschaft, als wenn man in einer ganz anderen Weise sich in die Wirklichkeit hineinzustellen vermag, als das die heutige sogenannte empirische Wissenschaft tut, die ich gewiß nicht unterschätze. Niemand wird mir eine Unterschätzung nach meinen Schriften vorwerfen können. Aber man muß in einer ganz anderen, konkreten Weise sich in die Wirklichkeit hineinstellen.
Ich habe das letzte Mal hier in einer Fragenbeantwortung gesagt, daß die Begriffe viel realer, viel wirklicher sein müssen. Auch übermorgen werden wir bei praktischen menschlichen Fragen und bei seelischen menschlichen Fragen auf dieses wirklichkeitsgemäße Denken wiederum zurückkommen. Wirklichkeitsgemäßes Denken ist dasjenige, das sich bei jeder Vorstellung, die es hegt, bewußt ist, inwieweit diese Vorstellung in der Wirklichkeit drinnensteht. Sehen Sie, abstrakt genommen ist eine Rosenblüte, die ich vor mir habe, ein wirkliches Ding; und man kann sie als ein wirkliches Ding nehmen. Für den Denker, der mit seinen Begriffen real in der Wirklichkeit drinnensteht, gibt es diesen Begriff Rosenblüte gar nicht anders, als daß er sich bewußt ist: diese Rosenblüte ist für sich etwas Abstraktes; sie ist nur möglich an dem ganzen Rosenbaum, und der wiederum im Zusammenhang mit der ganzen Erde und so weiter. Also das, was im Realen mit etwas zusammenhängt und künstlich herausgerissen werden kann, stellt der Geisteswissenschafter nicht als eine abgesonderte Vorstellung hin. Deshalb ist der Geisteswissenschafter jedesmal, wenn er seine Vorstellungen verfolgt, sich bewußt, inwieweit das Innere, Substantielle der Vorstellungen ihn in die Wirklichkeit hineinträgt. So wieder ein paradoxes Beispiel: man miktoskopiert, man gibt unter das Mikroskop einen Zellenkern. Ja, diesen Zellenkern unter dem Mikroskop, den betrachtet man nun abgesondert von alldem, was zu ihm gehört. Dessen ist sich der Geisteswissenschafter voll bewußt; er weiß, daß das etwas anderes ist, wenn ich einen Zellenkern durchs Mikroskop beobachte, als wenn ich zum Beispiel ein kleines Tier durch das Mikroskop beobachte. Da betrachte ich das Tier in seiner ganzen Größe. Betrachte ich aber etwas wie einen Zellenkern, so betrachte ich nicht in demselben Sinne eine Wirklichkeit wie das kleine Tier, das nicht größer wird, und das in dieser Weise abgeschlossen ist.
Dieses immer Begleitetsein von dem Wirklichkeitscharakter des Vorstellungslebens, das ist eine der ersten Vorbedingungen für das schauende Bewußtsein. Ich habe das wirklichkeitsgemäße Denken, im Gegensatze zu dem unwirklichkeitsgemäßen Denken, das heute vielfach herrscht, hervorgehoben in meinem Buche «Vom Menschenrätsel», das vor zwei Jahren erschienen ist. Dieses muß berücksichtigt werden bei einer solchen Frage. Ich habe deshalb gesagt, die naturwissenschaftliche Entwicklungslehre des 19. Jahrhunderts und bis heute hat natürlich ihre großen Verdienste. Aber sie behandelt die Frage nicht konkret genug. Will man die Entwickelung des Menschen studieren, so ist. es nicht gleichgültig, wovon im Menschen man ausgeht. Es ist zum Beispiel kein Einwand, wenn jemand sagt: Hier habe ich ein Lebewesen; dieses Lebewesen in seiner gegenwärtigen Gestalt hat Kletterfüße; es gibt solche Lebewesen, welche in der gegenwärtigen Gestalt — verzeihen Sie, daß ich ein ganz kleines Tier vergleiche mit dem Menschen, aber das tut ja auf naturwissenschaftlichem Gebiete nichts —, es gibt also kleine Tiere, Läuse, verzeihen Sie das harte Wort, ‚Läuse, welche Kletterfüße entwickeln. Diese Kletterfüße sind ein späteres Entwickelungsprodukt. DieStammformen haben diese Kletterfüße nicht. Das ist eine Anpassung an spätere Verhältnisse. Nun kommt es darauf an, einzusehen, daß die Stammform unter anderen Verhältnissen nicht die Kletterfüße hatte; unter späteren Verhältnissen entwickelte diese Läuseart die Kletterfüße. Man könnte viele Beispiele anführen. So handelt es sich darum, daß man dieses konkrete Verhältnis einsieht. Verzeihen Sie, wenn ich zum Menschen übergehe: es handelt sich darum, einzusehen, daß in der Stammform veranlagt ist, was in gerader Deszendenz, in gerader Fortströmung zu dem Hauptesorgan führt, und daß das andere spätere Erwerbungen sind. Um dieses konkrete Verhältnis handelt es sich. Und wenn man den Menschen nicht so betrachtet, so kann man ihn nicht im Zusammenhang mit der ganzen Naturentwickelung verstehen.
Ich kann natürlich diese Dinge nur andeuten. Wie gesagt, ich müßte einen langen Kursus halten, wenn ich alle Einzelheiten Ihnen vorführen sollte. Aber Anthroposophie ist ja heute erst im Werden, und betrachten Sie es nicht als irgendeine Albernheit, wenn ich das sage: man ist noch nicht so glücklich, Anthroposophie in Kursen, die anerkannt sind, vortragen zu können. Man muß sie als Anregungen in einzelnen Vorträgen, in denen man immer nur hinweisen kann auf das eine oder auf das andere, geben. Daher kommt alles Unvollkommene, was bei solcher Mitteilung selbstverständlich nur möglich ist. Aber das, was ich gesagt habe, spricht ebensowenig gegen die Auffassung der Entwickelung des Menschen als einheitliches Wesen, wie die Entwickelung der noch nicht mit Kletterfüßen behafteten Läuse zu Läusen mit Kletterfüßen dagegen spricht, daß das als einheitliches Wesen sich entwickelt hat. Also es handelt sich um die Charakteristik des Entwickelungsvorgangs, um das Spezielle des Entwickelungsvorgangs. Das ist es, auf das es ankommt in diesem Fall.
Spiritual Scientific Findings About Nature and Human Beings as Natural Creatures
One of the most significant relationships for spiritual scientists themselves is their relationship to contemporary and recent scientific research. If anything can clarify the necessity of anthroposophically oriented spiritual science from the outset, it is precisely the relationship to natural science in which it must place itself.
Among the attacks that this spiritual science has encountered, those directed against my own position on contemporary natural science are of particular interest to me, at least. It is quite understandable that attacks and opposition should arise from natural science itself against a spiritual direction which, although it stands firmly on the ground of natural science, must nevertheless go beyond natural science in almost all respects. But what is strange, and of some significance for the whole position of spiritual science, is that I myself have recently been repeatedly accused of not rejecting contemporary scientific research, but on the contrary, of standing fully on this ground. This accusation is made against me by supposed adherents of a “spiritual science” movement. And it is fair to say that with the scientific direction that emerges in these lectures, one is, in a sense, caught between the opposition that comes from natural science and the opposition that comes from some unclear, mystical, spiritual quarters that assert themselves almost as strongly.
Now I must say that spiritual science, as I represent it here in these lectures, must not only acknowledge that it is necessary to connect with natural science, but that it must also acknowledge that, as it is necessary and must appear in the present, it not only owes gratitude to natural science for its achievements in every respect, but must also be grateful to it. For it is precisely spiritual science that, if it does not want to remain dilettantish, amateurish, and unclear, must engage in a debate with natural science. promotion in every respect. For spiritual science, if it does not want to remain amateurish, laymanish, and unclear, needs to engage with natural science in the most eminent sense, because it must build on the latest findings of natural science in a certain way, as we shall see today.
This may seem paradoxical to those who are already familiar with some aspects of this anthroposophically oriented spiritual science. However, in the course of today's lecture, I will have to say many paradoxical things in almost every respect. And from the outset, I would like to apologize in advance, especially this evening, for the fact that I will be compelled to present the results of spiritual research, results which I intend to communicate solely for the purpose of stimulating thought. In order to substantiate and prove everything that needs to be said today, a week-long course would probably be necessary.
The scientific development of modern times must be considered in its essence if one wants to gain a proper understanding of it, especially as a spiritual scientist. This scientific direction owes its character not at all to what it itself attributes as its great advantages, but to completely different premises, completely different facts. The peculiar character that the scientific way of thinking and conceiving has assumed over the last four centuries, and especially in the 19th century and up to the present day, is based on the fact that in the course of human development throughout history, very specific tendencies toward knowledge and very specific talents for knowledge have emerged in human beings.
This emergence of the scientific way of thinking is often described as follows: Well, for thousands of years in earlier times, people went astray precisely on the basis of science; and now, I don't want to use the trivial expression that is so often used: And now we have come so wonderfully far! — but I just want to point out how good, honest, sincere adherents of the scientific way of thinking believe that it was simply necessary for humanity to arrive at the “truth,” at “correct knowledge” in certain matters, while earlier times “went astray.”
However, if one looks into the nature of scientific development, one will see that it is not so much a miracle that suddenly, since the 16th century, humanity has arrived at the only valid truth, but rather that since the 16th century, very specific talents, very specific inclinations and directions for the path of knowledge have emerged, and that these inclinations, these human needs, these, I might say, preferences have led humanity, on the one hand, to direct its gaze and attention to nature and, on the other hand, to give knowledge of nature the character that we today, especially when we stand on the ground of spiritual science, must admire so much.
One of the most striking talents that has emerged is that of observing precisely what is purely external and sensory reality. However, this preference and talent for observing what is given to the senses, what is sensory reality, has also been linked to another inclination: to attach an exclusively superior value to the sensually actual and to believe that everything that goes beyond the sensually actual must lead people into some kind of forbidden realm of knowledge, into some kind of vague, fantastical sphere, in short, into the abyss of knowledge.
That this is so can be seen in particular when one considers the endeavor to conquer human beings themselves through natural science. This endeavor aimed to apply the same forces and laws that are found in nature, separate from humans, to humans as well, to understand humans, in a sense, as mere natural beings, but as natural beings as they have emerged from the natural scientific view of modern times. And this conquest by natural science has not only extended to the external natural aspects of human beings, but also to viewing the human soul in some way from a scientific perspective, indeed bringing it as close as possible to pure natural law. And one can, I would say, even detect satisfaction and gratification in the modern researcher of the soul when he is able to apply something that he believes to be an irrefutable law of nature to the human soul. When I present extreme cases in this direction, I want to characterize the matter as strikingly as possible.
Anyone who still holds the view that the human soul is a being in itself will naturally come to the conclusion that this self-contained human soul being can express itself powerfully through the organism by means of impulses of will — we will talk about freedom or lack of freedom the day after tomorrow. The idea that the soul being is, in a sense, the source of power for the movement and action of the organism still dominates the thinking of some people today.
But those who believe they should think purely in terms of natural science say to themselves: In the 19th century, natural science conquered one of its most significant laws: that of constancy, of the conservation of energy, of the transformation of forces in such a way that nothing new can arise in the system of forces, that nothing can intervene in this system of forces that does not already live within it. If, then, one says to oneself, the soul were capable of setting the organism in motion of its own accord, it would have to develop a force. But this would have to be added to the forces that the organism has through food intake and its other relationships to the environment. The soul would have to be, in a sense, a source of power; in a sense, power would have to come out of nothing, whereas the law of conservation of energy only allows the forces that the human organism receives through food and the like to be converted into energy, so that any movement or heat development that emanates from it can be nothing other than the conversion of the food energy and other energy that it absorbs from outside. Thus, this law of conservation of energy, which plays such an important role in the scientific development of the 19th century, conflicts with the idea that the soul is the source of some kind of power.
Therefore, people were really very happy to be able to experimentally refute the idea that there is such a “reservoir of energy” in the soul that can intervene in the process of energy conversion. And the experiments in this direction, first with animals by the eminent biologist Rubner and then with humans by Atwater, are also noted by psychologists today, I would say, with a certain satisfaction. Rubner showed in animals that what they expend in heat energy and kinetic energy really proves to be nothing more than the conversion of the food energy they have absorbed, that is, nothing comes from the soul; Atwater extended these experiments to humans and selected very special specimens of people who were believed – naturally – to be able to do the job even better: academically educated individuals who were experimented on under all kinds of conditions, whether they were doing mental work, physical work, resting, or developing energy from within. He was able to prove, to a degree that always plays a role in experiments but is very slight, that even in the human organism, what emerges from within does not come from a reservoir of energy in the soul, but is transformed energy that the human organism first had to absorb. Psychologists such as Ebbinghaus also note with a certain satisfaction that there is no question of any doctrine of the soul coming into conflict with the law of conservation of energy.
Hundreds and hundreds of examples could be added from various points of view; they would show how significant and characteristic the conquest of the scientific way of thinking is in the realm of spiritual life. It is understandable, since this scientific conquest, or to a certain extent we can even say triumph, is still relatively young, that it does not want to be stopped in its course by anything other than this spiritual science, that it still has many inclinations on its way — as they say “prejudices,” one could also say “preconceptions” — against it, which are extremely difficult to combat. If natural science itself did not necessarily give rise to the need — just as a child must necessarily become an adult — for spiritual science to develop out of natural science, it would probably take a very, very long time before spiritual science could find any kind of acceptance in natural science when it appears here and there.
Now, of course, I must begin with a few critical remarks. Naturally, one must always highlight individual points in such matters, for I do not wish to speak in abstract principles. I do not wish to present general characteristics today, but rather to start from details and substantiate what I wish to say with details.
If we take an overview of what the natural sciences have adopted in recent times in terms of character, way of thinking, and mode of conception, then we must say: these natural sciences are above all under the impression that they must obtain some kind of experience from nature, which comes as if from some realm beyond human reach. — I do not want to go into philosophical discussions; but one borderline question must be touched upon, not because I believe that it is of particular importance for the natural scientist of the present day to deal with this borderline question, or because many natural scientists themselves raise this borderline question, but because their quest for knowledge is, in a sense, unconsciously moving toward this goal and can only be assessed if one considers it in the context of this movement, this goal.
I would like to take up an idea that is certainly of philosophical origin, but which haunts many people's minds: the idea of the “thing in itself.” Certainly, the philosophical question—let it be emphasized once again—of the “thing in itself” in the Kantian or any other sense will be of little interest to the actual natural scientist. But the whole direction, the whole endeavor of natural scientific thinking is to approach this “thing in itself”: whether one stands more on the ground of the older atomic theory or on the ground of the modern ion theory, the electron theory, whether one stands on this or that biological point of view, one will, of course, admit from the outset that one only wants to learn about the “laws of phenomena” and leave the “thing in itself” to the philosophers — but how one approaches the laws of phenomena, how one examines the phenomena at all, is based on the assumption that behind these phenomena there is some “thing in itself,” and that if one could go even deeper into the realm revealed by microscopy or other scientific methods, one would come closer and closer to such a “thing in itself.”
This idea dominates, at least unconsciously, the direction of scientific thinking, for anyone who, for example, assumes the existence of an atomic world, or assumes that behind the carpet of colors and nuances of light spread out in our environment there are vibrations of the ether, imagines that these vibrations of the ether belong, as it were, to a sphere of the “thing in itself.” And Eduard von Hartmann, the philosopher of the unconscious, who wanted to establish a philosophy of nature, has expressed it as a requirement that what natural scientists assume to be the world of atoms and the like, or forces behind sensory perceptions, must be accepted as something equivalent to the “thing in itself.”
For the anthroposophically oriented spiritual scientist, this search for a “thing in itself” lying behind phenomena, that is, this whole direction—I am not speaking now of philosophical hypotheses, but of this scientific direction—comparable to the attempt, if one sees this or that image in a mirror, to investigate what is behind the mirror: if, in order to see how these images come out of the mirror, one were to go behind the mirror to see where the origin of the images lies. But the origin of the images is not behind the mirror at all! Rather, the origin of the images is in front of the mirror: where we are already standing! We are inside the area where the images come from, and we would be indulging in an incredible illusion if we believed that we had to reach behind the mirror to find something from which these images come. As grotesque and paradoxical as it sounds, scientific concepts are based on the illusion of having to reach behind the mirror. For this illusion, the “thing in itself” lies behind the mirror. But in reality, it is not there.
Where does this come from? It comes from the fact that, as human beings, we stand not only in the middle of an external material world, behind which there is a “thing in itself,” but also in the middle of everything that underlies this world, only not everything is the content of our consciousness. We are right in the middle of it! And we cannot get behind what is the origin by dissecting the external phenomena of nature, just as one cannot get to know the essence of a human being by dissecting the mere image of a human being in the mirror, by recognizing the physical personality of this mirror image. One does not come to recognize the essence of these phenomena by dissecting them, but only by, if I may say so, intensively raising one's consciousness above what this consciousness does in everyday life. And this raising takes place in the way I characterized it in the first lecture here.
The consciousness that we have in everyday life as ordinary waking consciousness is only capable of forming the conceptual tools to bring order and systematics to phenomena, which is called “regularity.” If consciousness wants to penetrate further, it must transform itself; it must develop forces from within itself that otherwise lie dormant; then what I have tried to characterize as imaginative, inspired, intuitive knowledge, in short, as contemplative knowledge, as contemplative consciousness — but not in a nebulous sense, but in a strictly scientific sense — must emerge from the depths of this consciousness.
Just as one would never think of knowing anything about the essence, the physical essence of the human being from the mirror image if one were unconscious of oneself, without empowering oneself and feeling oneself as a physical human being — one must feel oneself, one must know that one is standing there oneself — just as one cannot arrive at the essence of natural phenomena without perceiving one's soul, which is contained within natural phenomena, in such a way that it has a different nature of knowledge than that of ordinary waking consciousness. With regard to what this contemplative consciousness, this imaginative and so forth knowledge is, I would like to refer to my writings, especially my penultimate book, The Riddle of Man. I would just like to say in principle: It is not a matter of developing a physically new organ, but rather of developing a real capacity for vision purely in the soul realm, spiritual organs that add something new to what the soul sees in its environment in ordinary waking consciousness, just as the opened eye of the blind-born person who has undergone surgery adds the world of colors to the world he previously knew alone.
The task is therefore not to arrive at a “thing in itself,” something “behind the phenomena,” through any material hypotheses or conclusions, but to strengthen the soul so that it sees the essential, as it were, in front of the mirror.
Now, of course, it will take a long time before such a contemplative consciousness is taken seriously in wider scientific circles, even though this contemplative consciousness is characterized neither by a miracle nor by anything inaccessible to any human being, but rather by something that every human being can find within themselves, even if today's habits of thought, habits of feeling and knowing, prove to be an obstacle to the awakening of such a contemplative consciousness.
Now I would like to present some of the results of this contemplative consciousness, specifically in relation to what we call nature. In doing so, I will be compelled to present some ideas that are very difficult to communicate to those who are firmly entrenched in the natural sciences. However, on such an occasion, it may be permissible to refer to personal matters: What I am presenting is by no means just some idea or a collection of ideas, nor is it something I have invented, but rather it has been gained through decades of research in full harmony with recent developments in natural science; and some of what I have to say today I would not have been able to formulate in this way a short time ago.
Above all, I would like to refer to specific, individual points. In recent times, what is known as the theory of evolution, the theory of descent, has had a great influence on scientific thinking. And it must be said that if one is not an amateur in this field, one knows what fruit this theory of descent, apart from all its downsides, has brought to modern thinking, to the whole modern world view. However, if one wants to truly appreciate the essence of this theory of evolution, one must disregard all the amateurish and layman's attempts at worldviews, into which, unfortunately, the scientific results in this field have so often flowed in recent times. What often asserts itself as “monistic” or other worldview movements is based primarily on the fact that their proponents know little about what science itself has recently taken shape in the field they are talking about. It is often grotesque how such worldview endeavors lag behind scientific advances, which can no longer agree with such things.
But when one speaks of the theory of evolution, one is reminded of the early days of this theory, of all the great idealistic hopes that Ernst Haeckel—I do not want to underestimate or overestimate him—attached to it in the 1860s and 1870s, hopes that he then inspired in his students. Today, I do not want to dwell on the radicalism to which Ernst Haeckel came at that time, although he made enormous, and also positive, scientific contributions. However, I would like to point out that even cautious researchers who have ventured into the field of developmental theory—names such as Nägeli and Gegenbaur come to mind—have not only felt the fruitfulness of developmental theory themselves, but have also proven it in their intervention in the scientific development of modern times. A large number of names could be mentioned here. However, something peculiar has emerged, especially when we consider the relatively short history of the development of this theory of evolution.
With what high hopes for the pure elaboration of Darwinian principles Haeckel and his students once sailed through the scientific currents of modern times! What a role the catchphrases “theory of selection” and “survival of the fittest” played! What hopes did some people attach to the idea that it was now possible to say that any wise forces intervening in the development of the world had been overcome. What had to be understood was that forces equivalent to forces of chance confront the stages of development of this or that organism, which also arise from purely natural necessity, in such a way that the suitable remains alongside the unsuitable, and that the suitable thus stands, as it were, ever more perfectly in contrast to the imperfect, which has fallen away, so that perfection can be conceived without any kind of teleological principle of purpose! And even today there are people who believe they are standing firmly on the ground of a modern worldview when they say: May everything that Darwin himself put forward for his theory of evolution be overcome, but the achievements cannot be eliminated from the world, that one has come to believe in purposeful forces, in, as Eduard von Hartmann says, “superpowers” that intervene in the purely inorganic laws of the natural world when organic matter arises!
In what thinking has grasped, what has entered into human beings in order to free them from certain prejudices to which they were previously attached, one sees a very special value from certain worldview standpoints. But we have experienced a strange thing: When Darwinism appeared with its elimination of all higher forces that are supposed to intervene in organic development, the “Philosophy of the Unconscious” appeared at the end of the 1860s, i.e., at the height of the emerging Darwinism. I do not want to defend Eduard von Hartmann, but what I am telling you is a fact. Eduard von Hartmann opposed the theory of mere chance. He claimed that something completely different must intervene in the lifeless, dead workings of purely inorganic natural laws — directing forces, higher essential forces — if organic development is to take place. What selection achieves cannot create anything new; what is newly created must arise from inner driving forces; selection can only choose between what is already there, it can remove what is unsuitable, but it cannot gradually conjure up perfection from imperfection. Eduard von Hartmann put forward many insightful ideas in his “Philosophy of the Unconscious” against Darwinism, the theory of evolution, which was so promising at the time and which thinks in purely mechanistic terms. The philosopher of the unconscious was not taken seriously because he was a philosopher and not a natural scientist. People said: Oh, what such a dilettante, who understands nothing about scientific principles, says cannot be of any particular value to scientific development. — With such and similar remarks, people dismissed what Eduard von Hartmann had to say.
Counter-writings appeared against this “amateurish, dilettantish philosopher.” One counter-writing appeared: “The Unconscious from the Point of View of Physiology and Descent Theory” by an anonymous author, a man who did not name himself, who brilliantly dismissed Eduard von Hartmann from the point of view of Darwinism at that time. Oskar Schmidt, Darwin's biographer, Haeckel himself, and others were very sympathetic to this anonymous work and said: It is good — this is how one can summarize these judgments — that someone who, on every page, shows how deeply he is immersed in the true scientific way of thinking, dismisses such a dilettante as Eduard von Hartmann. This anonymous author—said one of the dyed-in-the-wool Darwinists—just tell us who you are, and we will consider you one of our own! And another, who stood firmly on the ground of Darwinist-mechanistic “theory,” said: Everything I myself could have said against the dilettantism of Eduard von Hartmann, he has said. In short, the Darwinists did a lot of propaganda for this work, and it was soon sold out. A second edition soon became necessary. Now the author revealed his name: it was Eduard von Hartmann! From then on, there was general silence among those who had previously praised the work, and the fact was little mentioned.
But as strange as this is, what follows seems to me to be even more remarkable: one of Ernst Haeckel's most important students, one of those who spent their years of study entirely in the spirit of the flourishing new theories of evolution associated with the name of Darwin, is Oscar Hertwig. And Oscar Hertwig—consider how little time has actually passed since the heyday of Darwinian theory—Oscar Hertwig published a book last year, in 1916, a book that is truly exemplary for scientific presentation: “The Development of Organisms: A Refutation of Darwin's Theory of Chance.” And among the people whom Oscar Hertwig says in this excellent book should be listened to when forces other than those at work in the inorganic world are asserted for the realm of organisms is Eduard von Hartmann!
It is a very strange phenomenon that, in a relatively short period of time, the camp from which the best continuators of the older theory of evolution of the 1860s, 1870s, and 1880s emerged has itself produced a refuter of one of the basic ideas of this theory of evolution. This should give pause to those who, with a few hackneyed dilettantish concepts today construct worldviews—so-called “monistic” ones—should give pause for thought.
Now I must address a few specific questions, not so much about the newer theory of evolution, but about the theory of evolution in general, in order to show how anthroposophically oriented spiritual science must relate to them. This theory of evolution is based on the conclusion drawn from the facts: the perfect, the so-called perfect, as it stands before us today, or perhaps better said, the more differentiated and organized, has gradually developed from the less perfect, the less differentiated and organized. Not only geology and paleontology are brought in to prove this view, but also embryology, the theory of development of the individual. And it is precisely through a theory of the development of the individual, albeit in comparison with animal embryology, that Oscar Hertwig's new book “Das Werden der Organismen” (The Development of Organisms) is exemplary. It summarizes in a beautiful way what is said in this field. And all developmental theory must start from individual development. Haeckel wanted to express with his so-called biogenetic law that the entire tribal development is repeated in the development of the individual, so that in the embryonic development of higher animals, the morphological forms and physiological functions of simpler earlier animals can be found again at a certain stage.
Strange as it may seem, however, the theory of individual development cannot avoid a very trivial question if it wants to apply its laws to the development of organisms as a whole. I apologize for bringing up this trivial matter; it has been raised countless times, but as we shall see, it is nevertheless of fundamental importance. The question is simply this: what is the starting point of development, the egg or the chicken? The chicken develops from the egg, but the egg can only come from the chicken.
Today, when the facts run forward and backward into the indefinite, so to speak, the question is not very important. But if one wants to form ideas about the relationship between individual development and world development, then it does have significance. For then one is forced to consider that circumstances must have existed in which the egg germ, that is, what is today the basis of individual development, could develop on its own, without descending from any already reasonably perfect beings. As I said, I can only hint at the matter; but anyone who looks into the question more closely will find that, trivial as it may be, it is of great significance.
Now, if one approaches this question conscientiously and honestly, one will not get to the bottom of it if one approaches it only with the embryological ideas that modern science can provide. One somehow arrives at what I called in my first lecture “the limits of knowledge”; one arrives at one of those “places” where the higher powers of contemplative consciousness must develop. One can even say that such questions can provide significant stimuli for the development of soul powers that might otherwise have remained dormant in the soul for a long time. If one pursues this matter not with the attitude of reaching behind the mirror, but rather by viewing what is in front of the mirror as the cause of what appears as a phenomenon, that is, what appears through the mirror, then one finds, when one advances to contemplative consciousness, that even today one can only say, if one indulges in a grave error: The egg is produced in the hen by the hen or by the mere fertilization of the hen. This is how the matter appears from the outside, this is how the mirror image appears, so to speak. But if one manages to overlook what is really there in the observing consciousness, one comes to something else, one comes to the conclusion that in fact the egg is by no means formed and matured in the body of the hen solely by the forces emanating from the pair of chickens.
A scientific view that is based solely on the sensory and factual cannot, of course, arrive at any other conclusion than that the egg is formed through the interaction of the rooster and the hen and through what takes place in the hen's body. But if one wants to form views on such a matter, one must rightly arrive at mystical concepts — concepts that are mystical in the negative sense, with which very many people operate, even Hertwig again — for example, the concept of “disposition.”
When one speaks of “disposition” — in relation to anything that develops — then one can find an explanation for everything that happens in the world by saying: Well, now it is there, it was not there before, the first thing that was there was precisely the “disposition” for it! — That is about as clever as talking about “disposition” in the case of certain diseases that arise under the same conditions in some people but not in others. That way, you can push everything back, can't you, in these matters! And if you don't try to achieve any clarity with this, you will only end up with words that are not really filled with real content, but are unclear. “Disposition” and “predisposition” are misguided mystical concepts that only make sense if one can respond to the real, to what is spiritually perceptible.
Now the seeing consciousness sees all kinds of other things. Just as the blind man who undergoes surgery then sees colors, so the seeing consciousness sees all kinds of other things. And these other things that it sees in our case make it clear to it that what still today arises as an egg in the chicken actually arises from forces that do not lie within the chicken, but are exerted into the chicken from the universe. What is the chicken's body and surrounds the egg really only provides the mother soil. The forces that shape the egg come from the cosmos, they come in from outside. And fertilization is even — I cannot go into such details today, but they can be determined quite precisely — only the bringing about of the possibility that certain forces acting from the cosmos gain a foothold at this particular place.
What develops as an egg in the chicken's body is developed from the cosmos and is an image of the cosmos. If anyone finds this inconceivable and cannot find an analogy in other areas, they should imagine what it would mean if they wanted to derive the direction of the magnetic needle solely from the inner forces of the magnetic needle. They do not do this; they derive it from a terrestrial effect, i.e., from forces that have to do with the whole earth. Forces from the environment act on the magnetic needle. Here, in the inorganic realm, one can arrive at such conclusions through mere external sensory perception. The fact that forces act upon the egg that must be sought not only in the ancestors but also outside in the entire cosmos will be an achievement of natural science fertilized by spiritual science. And many results that are also significant for practical application will come to light once we take into account that, basically, what external natural science has at its disposal, however sensory and factual it may be, is only an abstraction, only something on which we build because we do not know the stronger forces.
In every process of fertilization and embryological development, contemplative consciousness sees extra-individual forces from the cosmos at work, which could be described in detail. In my short work “Human Life from the Perspective of Spiritual Science,” I refer to this whole field of research in other areas; today I would like to refer specifically to this area.
Now, when the empirical natural scientist, as they say today, whom I truly do not despise but admire to the highest degree, because what natural science has brought to light in its empiricism yields a far richer harvest of human knowledge, I would say a hundred and a thousand times more human knowledge than the rudimentary concepts that natural science itself is able to offer today; so when the embryologist brings his facts to light, especially when he makes use of the already so admirably developed microscope, and when the spiritual scientist then joins in this work, the spiritual scientist says to himself: Certainly, what the embryologist actually observes is all external, sensory-actual; but in describing how the male germ unites with the female germ and so on, how this or that is formed by the rearrangement of the cell nucleus parts and so on — the descriptions are, of course, extremely interesting and meaningful — then those who take the standpoint of anthroposophically oriented spiritual science see in all this the traces of a comprehensive spiritual activity that only expresses itself in this sensory-visible form. And if one wanted to see in what appears under the microscope through all possible staining methods something that stands absolutely on its own, which one only needed to describe in order to have the germination process and the development process, one would be like someone who follows a road on which a person has left their footprints and believes that these footprints were created by the inner forces of the earth, not by a person who dug them. Just as these footprints would be completely misinterpreted if I said: There are all kinds of forces down there that create these footprints — but as I must assume that a person has walked over it and trodden the ground, so, if I want to get at the real facts, I must look at the spiritual, which imprints its final traces, as, forgive the expression, through processes of separation, which then appear under the microscope and through the methods of staining.
But when the observing consciousness takes hold of the matter, one comes to something else. One comes to compare this process, which occurs through pure empiricism, through pure external, actual sensory experience, with something that can only be known through the research of the observing consciousness.
In the first lecture, I outlined what happens in human beings when they further process their sensory perceptions through thinking, when they form ideas. What takes place in the soul as a real process is not regarded as such by materialistic thinking, but is sought only in nervous processes. But if one really follows this inner real process, which the soul experiences for itself, through awakened imaginative knowledge, if one does not merely have those abstractions in the soul that modern psychology or even logic bring about — how ideas “connect,” “reproduce,” and so on — but if one is able, through a trained science of the soul in the sense as I outlined in the first lecture here, to grasp this inner aspect of imagination and a part of feeling with the inner soul's eye, then one has in what one thus grasps with the soul's eye something that belongs together with what the embryologist finds in germ development, indeed in the course of cell development. One sees, as it were, as if one were actually comparing the model and the image: on the one hand, the process of imagination and feeling in the soul, and on the other hand, the process of fertilization, the process of nuclear division and so on, the process of cell division itself; and one sees how these two processes are related to each other — I want to express myself as carefully as possible: they are related to each other in such a way that one, translated into the material realm, represents what the other is in the soul and spirit realm.
And when one really considers the spiritual-soul process, something else emerges. One realizes that the way this soul-spiritual process takes place in human beings today can only happen because the entire natural environment, with human beings within it as physical bodies, provides a basis for it. Those who truly attain spiritual insight expand the abilities that enable them to truly see the essence of the soul and spirit. And so one recognizes that under today's conditions, what develops as a process of imagination and feeling is only possible as it happens today — only on the condition that the whole process takes place in the presence of a human body; but through its inner essence, the process reveals itself as one that recedes into time. Time becomes something real. It recedes in time. And one actually learns to recognize that what takes place within oneself today, in thinking and accomplishing a part of feeling, is in fact something that could develop for itself in the distant, distant past, when there was no such earthly environment, without the human body.
And by doing this — I can only, since time is pressing, sketch out the starting points of a far-reaching path of knowledge here — to bring the spiritual-soul into real relation to what is happening sensually and actually before our eyes, we now understand in a completely different way the relationship that prevails between what is external, sensual, and physical nature, and what surges and flows through the world in a soul-spiritual way. And if one now expands on what I have been able to present, I would say, only in its elementary beginnings, one arrives — if one really proceeds in a spiritual scientific way — not by the external scientific path, such as geology or paleontology or the Kant-Laplace theory, but by the path of inner spiritual -spiritual experience, to worlds long past, in which it was not possible to carry out external physical processes, such as embryonic development with a physical cell, as we do today, but in which what could be real at that time was still possible in spiritual-soul form. One looks back on spiritual-soul aspects that are precursors to what happens physically and sensually today.
The spiritual-soul aspect has, in a sense, withdrawn into the cosmic realm today; it works indirectly through physicality and, to return to our example of the chicken, also causes the egg today to have a density of substance that it did not need to have in ancient times. But from these forces, which one comes to know — not by speculation or hypothesis, but by observing from within the inner laws of imagination and thought — the spiritual-soul forces were able in those ancient times, without the need for the environment of the chicken's body, not a mystical “disposition,” but a first step, which then, when conditions in the environment changed, needed to be protected by the “body” of the chicken as it is today.
Thus, on the one hand, the spiritual scientist relies completely on natural science, but on the other hand must go beyond natural science, beyond what is considered natural science today, not through speculation, but by developing truly perceptive powers of cognition, which are to replace theories and hypotheses that are merely speculative, merely added to experience. And if one has advanced in this way, and really advanced in such a way that one does not sin in any way against the established findings of modern natural science, then what the current theory of evolution presents is rectified for human beings in particular. I will have to say paradoxical things at every turn today, but I want to stimulate thought. I expose myself to the danger of being ridiculed under certain circumstances; but I want to stimulate. I just want to say that this spiritual science, this anthroposophy, exists; and although it is not yet recognized today, it has certain research results to offer which it believes it can speak about with the same scientific justification as the science based on the senses, equipped with microscopes and telescopes, speaks about its results. Not out of arrogance, but out of necessity, it must be said that this spiritual scientific direction, which is to be represented here in these lectures, does not have it as easy as natural science in many respects. It is therefore understandable that some people say: Yes, what he says is really quite difficult to understand! Certainly, what takes into account only the purely factual, what is obvious to the eye, is easier to understand; and the nature of the subject itself demands that there be difficulties of understanding in such matters, which are only hinted at here. But even objectively, anthroposophy does not have it so easy, and this becomes particularly apparent when, for example, in its sense — that is, not only theoretically — human beings are viewed as natural beings.
As I said, I do not underestimate the science of evolution. I even believe that this theory of evolution is one of the most significant achievements of human intellectual development. And it is precisely because I have vigorously defended the validity of the theory of evolution in my book “The Riddles of Philosophy” and in other writings that I have been subjected to attack after attack from those who do not understand it. Just look at the second volume of my “Rätsel der Philosophie” to see whether I speak from any point of view that does not do full justice to this theory of evolution! But as simple as pure — as we say today — empirical natural science makes it, anthroposophy, as a spiritual science, is not so simple. For when we consider the human being, we must say: the idea that the human being, as he stands in his physical form, simply emerged from animal forms, which in turn emerged from lower animal forms, and so on — this idea is completely amateurish in comparison with spiritual science anthroposophy.
If, in the spiritual-scientific sense as meant here, we want to consider the development of the human being as a natural being, then we must — it certainly seems quite paradoxical, but that is how it is — first divide this human being into parts. By scientifically developing and perfecting what appears in Goethe's theory of metamorphosis — anyone who follows my writings will see how much effort I have put into this area — one must divide the human being into parts. One cannot simply take the human being as a whole, but must make a certain assumption, albeit a substantiated one. This is as follows: That one takes the head for itself, that one becomes clear about this: as the human being stands before us today, he can only be scientifically understood if one takes the head for itself and the rest, in a sense — take it initially as an auxiliary concept — as an appendage. So: the head for itself; one must seek what can be called descent, ancestry, for this head for itself. This head of the human being, the head — it is not precisely spoken, but only approximately, because the head continues after the torso. That changes things; but one can only speak approximately in these matters — this head of the human being is in fact a morphologically transformed form from other forms far, far back in time. So that one can say: insofar as man is a head creature, he can trace his descent back a long way. And — for details, I refer to my “Outline of Esoteric Science” and other writings of mine, it even appears that the being whose transformation made the present form of the human head possible must be sought in a much more distant past than any of today's animals or plants, so that when we consider the human being as a head creature, we must go back to a much more distant past.
What we find today in humans as a kind of appendage to the head — roughly speaking, because appendages already existed in ancient times — developed on the basis of the head. And when the being that in its development became the human head being and had the possibility of forming the other human organization close to the present animal body came to this organization, that was the time when general development had progressed so far that animal beings could now also arise.
This brings us to a remarkable theory of descent, remarkable only in relation to the ideas of the present day. We must say: insofar as man is a head creature, he descends from ancestors who gradually transformed themselves, who were certainly formed differently in primeval times than man is formed today, but who actually have their descendants only in the human head. And in the time when, under the general conditions of development, such beings as we have today in the animal kingdom could form, man added to his humanity that which is in his animal nature.
Here you see again the beginnings — I can only give the elementary beginnings — of a theory of development which arises when one does not believe that the human head has merely grown out of the rest of the organism, but rather that this human head is actually the primordial structure of the human being, and the rest of the organism is attached to this head. And because such an organism became attached at a late stage of development, human beings entered into a stream of development that can indeed be combined with the stream of development, with the descent of animal beings.
What the theory of evolution has brought to light leads to true knowledge in this field. If one knows this, if one knows it really thoroughly, if one carefully consults paleontology, embryology, all the experiences in the field of musculature, the investigations that can shed light on the nature of the human skull — much more carefully than today's external natural science does — then one comes to say to oneself: Precisely that which is not provided by theory — that is, by the theory refuted by natural science itself today, as by Oscar Hertwig — but which is provided by experience, which lies there, which one need only take up and illuminate with the light that can be gained from spiritual science, all this gives us tremendously broad perspectives, so that modern developmental theory was by no means unnecessary, by no means merely an aberration, but on the contrary belongs to the most fruitful, and will only belong to the most fruitful in the future, because it will shine an unprecedented light into the mysteries of the universe.
If I were to add anything emotionally to what I say about spiritual science going beyond mere, purely factual natural science, it would be this: Yes, it is truly this theory of evolution from the second half of the 19th century that is the seed of great, significant insights, the seed of something that is not yet present in the general consciousness of humanity, something that provides the best inspiration for a truly anthroposophically oriented worldview. This worldview shows that those spiritual activities which are believed to be conclusive and which only need to be connected to what is sensually and factually given in order to explain it, that these spiritual activities, which are at work even in such an excellent book as that by Oscar Hertwig or in others, do not really lead to answer questions, but only to ask questions in the right way. They must be answered when they are asked correctly. And the outside world always answers us when we know how to ask questions correctly. When they are asked correctly, it answers through what can be achieved as spiritual vision.
However, when I speak in this way of a modified theory of descent, that is, that one must, in a sense, imagine human beings in reverse: one must seek his origin in what underlies the head and must proceed from the head in order to understand the human being, whereas one usually attempts to do this in the opposite way, when I say this, one must at the same time be based on a true, genuine conception of the present human being. And here I come to another individual result of anthroposophical research into the natural basis of the human being.
When we speak today of the relationship between the soul and the human body, we actually only consider the body as a physical “instrument,” as they say, but it is not an “instrument” — we will talk about these things the day after tomorrow — it is only sought in the body as a counterpart to the soul, the nervous system. And if you look at psychological books today, in whose first chapters a kind of physiological precursor to psychology is always dealt with, you will find that they actually only talk about the nervous system as the “organ of the soul.”
Those of you who listen to me often know how rarely I speak about personal matters. But this may be necessary here, because I can only sketch this topic in broad strokes: What I now have to say in this area is the conclusion of more than thirty years of research, which also takes into account everything that is relevant in physiological and related fields; Anyone who is truly familiar with the findings of today's physiologists and biologists in this field will, once they have been given some guidance, find that what I have to say to you is proven at every turn. By simply equating the nervous system with the life of the soul, one is taking an extremely one-sided approach. And no one shows more clearly how one-sided this approach is than a researcher whom I particularly esteem as one of the most outstanding psychologists, Theodor Ziehen. Because he starts from the prejudice of talking primarily about the nervous system when he discusses certain relationships between the soul and the body, between the natural foundations of human beings, he ends up treating emotional life, which, when viewed realistically, is just as real as intellectual or imaginative life, only I would say, as an appendage to the life of the imagination. Theodor Ziehen does not really deal with the life of feeling in his psychology. Others do the same. They then speak of the “emotional emphasis of ideas”; the ideas that have their physical counterpart in the nervous system are “emotionally emphasized”; one should not think of a particularly physical counterpart to emotional life.
And first of all — read Theodor Ziehen's psychology or other books, I could cite a whole series of truly excellent writings in this field—when these personalities come to talk about the will, you will see that there is no possibility of really talking about the will, which is a very real area of psychological experience. The will simply disappears for Theodor Ziehen when he writes about his physiological-psychological matters; it is simply argued away; it is not there for him at all; it is, so to speak, only there as a play of ideas. Thus, through the influence of one-sidedness, something that is quite obviously there in experience is violated, just as other things are also essentially violated by such research.
But if one really takes into account everything that physiology, this exemplary science, has already achieved to date — even if much is still questionable and open to debate — if one takes into account everything that is not yet properly illuminated, then one comes to the conclusion — I can only sketch the result — that the entire human organism is a counterpart to the entire human soul. In my latest book, “Von Seelenrätseln” (On the Mysteries of the Soul), which will be published in the next few weeks, or may even already be available, I have dealt with borderline questions of conventional science and anthroposophy in the final chapters, and among these borderline questions, albeit only in terms of results, is what can be said about the question just touched upon.
There is nothing to be said against the idea that the life of imagination has its physical counterpart in the nervous system, although the connection is to be imagined quite differently from what modern science does; I will speak about this the day after tomorrow. If one seeks a physical counterpart for the life of imagination, one must look for it in the nervous system.
Not so for the life of feeling! I am almost reluctant to say something so far-reaching in such few words, something that has become clear to me not through years, but through decades of research. When speaking of the life of feeling, one cannot seek any relationship between this life of feeling and the nervous system in the same sense as one seeks a relationship between the life of imagination and the nervous system. There is, of course, an indirect relationship, but it is only indirect. The emotional life, which seems almost unbelievable under the prejudice of today's science, has a similar direct relationship to what one might call the respiratory rhythm in all its ramifications as the life of the imagination has to the nervous system. Just as one has to go into the finest ramifications of the nervous system, so too, of course, with what are rhythmic movements that have their starting point only in the respiratory rhythm and then branch out and ramify everywhere, affecting the brain. Comte's ideas about the mechanics of the human body are very interesting in this regard. In this rhythmic interplay of movements in humans, which are actually all dependent on the respiratory rhythm, in what occurs as such rhythmic movements that transcend the blood rhythm, one must seek the physical counterpart to the life of feeling.
I know, dear audience, that countless objections to what I have just said will now arise. But these objections can all be refuted. I would like to draw your attention to one of them, just briefly. One could easily say, for example: Well, music's aesthetic effect is actually based on feeling; but this feeling is stimulated by the perception of sound, that is, by an external sensory impression, which of course continues its effect in the nervous system; there you see — one might object — how you are mistaken: you claim that something whose aesthetic effect is decidedly based on emotional life is connected with the rhythm of breathing, whereas it is musical perception that is fundamental, gained indirectly through the ear and the auditory nerve! — This objection is merely an illusion, for the actual process is much more complicated. Only that kind of seeing which is oriented by the forces gained in seeing consciousness can lead to such things: in our brain, the breathing rhythm encounters what is going on in the nervous system. And the musical emotional experience arises only from this interaction, from this meeting of what extends from the breathing rhythm into the nervous life with the nervous structure. As this reacts to the breathing rhythm, the musical emotional experience arises. So the emotional experiences can really be explained if, as I said, we regard the breathing rhythm, the life of breathing itself, as the physical counterpart to the life of feeling, just as we must regard the nervous system as the physical counterpart to the life of imagination.
And now we come to volition. When we examine all physiological considerations in the way that the oriented faculty of knowledge of the observing consciousness is able to do, it turns out that everything that is experienced as volition by the soul has its physical counterpart in metabolic processes. Metabolic processes, respiratory rhythms, and nervous processes essentially make up physical life, with the exception of two things, which I will mention shortly.
The matter becomes difficult only because, of course, the nerve must also be explained in such a way that the life of nutrition, the life of metabolism, continues into the nerve. But it is not the nutrition of the nerve, not the metabolic process of the nerve, that is the physical counterpart of the life of imagination, but a completely different process. I have pointed this out in my book “Von Seelenrätseln” (On the Riddles of the Soul): insofar as the nerve is dependent on metabolism, it is only a mediator of the process of will. Because one system — the metabolic system, the rhythmic breathing process, the nervous system — pushes into the other, the systems do not lie spatially next to each other, but merge into each other, extend into each other, which makes observation particularly difficult. But essentially it is this: in the nerve, what underlies the life of imagination is not the fact that it is touched by rhythm, not the fact that it is nourished, but a completely different inner activity; in the finest branches of the respiratory rhythm, it is this respiratory rhythm itself that underlies the life of feeling, and everything that is recorded in the organism as metabolism, down to the finest branches, is the physical counterpart of the processes of the will.
We have thus related the whole soul to the whole human body. And from the point of view of the anthroposophical spiritual science that I represent, I believe—no differently than one believes in truly rigorous scientific fields—that the facts of physiology are already sufficient today to fully substantiate what I have just explained. And I am convinced that if the empirical sciences are developed further along these lines, they can be enormously fruitful for life in all directions: medicine, psychiatry, all kinds of fields will be able to experience significant stimulation if the whole human soul is taken together with the whole human body in this way.
Two aspects fall outside the human organism: what I would like to call the sensory zone and the life of movement. And current science is on very shaky ground, particularly in the study of the senses on the one hand and the study of movement on the other. These two poles of human existence, I would say, are very little understood, neither by psychological nor by physiological or similar researchers, because both in the sensory zone, in the realm of sensory life, and in the realm of movement life, the human being no longer belongs completely to himself, but already belongs to the outside world, living with his soul into the outside world: when humans perform movements, there is a state of equilibrium or a dynamic state in the movement through which humans are integrated into the realm or the interplay of forces of the outside world; and as humans extend their soul from mere nervous life into the life of the sensory realm, that is, as the soul experiences itself in the actual sensory organs, it happens that humans truly transcend their own realm. The senses protrude into our lives like gulfs of the outside world, and only when this is taken into account will we arrive at a reasonable theory of the senses, which cannot be gained at all by the paths that natural science is following today.
I have not wanted to discuss general principles or give general characteristics, especially for the description of the relationship of anthroposophy to natural science and to the natural basis of the human being, but I have, despite all the dangers that such a thing entails, highlighted individual concrete results and areas of results in order to characterize, through the concrete, the way in which anthroposophy wants to stand alongside recognized natural science. However, it will be apparent from this that many prejudices, preconceptions, predispositions, and preconceptions in the scientific field will have to be overcome if anthroposophy is to be understood. Today, the sensory — I mean the sensory-actual of perception, not the sensory in the moral realm — is even more powerful than it was back then, when the whole world objected to Copernicanism on the grounds that it contradicted sensory perception and did not accept it. Copernicus contradicted sensory perception by having to posit something for the external sensory world that external sensory perception cannot provide. Spiritual science is compelled to go beyond the external sensory world in yet another respect. It will certainly encounter resistance upon resistance in this field. And with a lecture like this, one can only offer individual suggestions; but I ask you to bear in mind that my intention is precisely to offer suggestions. It is easy to criticize these suggestions from a ready-made standpoint! They can, of course, be criticized to the ground; and everything that can be put forward as such criticism, I could put forward myself — quite naturally. But on the other hand, it will be seen that what lives in natural science, if one does not want to stop it, can develop into a far-reaching revelation of profound world secrets.
How fruitful, how significant such a revelation must become for the whole of human life in the broadest sense, I will have to speak about the day after tomorrow, when I will have to discuss the practical application to the fields of morality, social and religious life, political life, the doctrine of freedom of the will, and other practical areas.
I had to expose myself to the danger of being misunderstood by citing individual concrete results. For today, there is much that speaks against the ascent of human beings into the realms of true and genuine, actual spiritual life. And today, people believe that they can only be enlightened if they say about the deepest question of the soul, about the question of immortality — which I will also have to talk about the day after tomorrow — and about other questions: that this is beyond scientific assessment, that human cognitive abilities are not sufficient for this.
The witty Fritz Mauthner wrote about this human capacity for knowledge in his “Dictionary of Philosophy,” which is truly stimulating to read because it transports you to an intellectual sphere in which you go round and round in circles without ever arriving at anything, but when you think you have arrived at a quarter of a result, it is refuted and you are led on and continue to go round in circles. Mauthner, who nevertheless has the great merit of having shown how inadequate everything that already exists as “complete science” is, even believes that this talk of the spirit is a sophisticated invention of Hegel's. He says something like this: It was Hegel who first infected philosophy with the concept of the spirit as we understand it today; the older concept of the spirit was derived solely from the concept of the Holy Spirit. — And he finds that many who today consider themselves to be critical minds, particularly enlightened minds, indeed, minds — perhaps they themselves do not say so, because they do not accept the “mind,” that is, to be human beings who stand at the pinnacle of science — Mauthner says that with many of these it is so: Man wants to know through understanding and reason; but “understanding is a silver axe without a handle, and reason is a golden handle without an axe,” and with these two imperfect things man wants to somehow penetrate the essence of the world!
Such people then like to refer to the comprehensive concept of nature established by Goethe. We also find Fritz Mauthner quoting Goethe to attribute to him the idea that he, too, viewed humans merely as creatures of nature! But even in the essay “Nature,” which Fritz Mauthner quotes, there are sentences about nature such as this: “It has thought and continues to ponder,” albeit not as a human being, but as nature. Such a nature, as Goethe conceived it, could be accepted! It is something different from the nature that often underlies today's natural science. And especially when we consider what Goethe said to Schiller: “If my natural scientific laws are to be ideas, then I see my ideas with my eyes” – then we can also accept naturalism from such a point of view, for it is a naturalism that by no means excludes spiritualism, but rather includes it. And I believe that precisely what Goethe intended in his large-scale theory of metamorphosis in the Elements, which he developed to a high degree, but only in the Elements, that this, further developed and transferred to the spiritual realm, is the real basis for a true, anthroposophically oriented spiritual science.With what I have said today about the descent of man and the relationship of the human soul to the body, I know myself to be in harmony with Goetheanism, albeit with a Goetheanism that has been developed further into our times and in scientific form.
And to those who, in their seemingly enlightened and critical rejection of any real spiritual knowledge, believe they can refer to Goethe, one must say — let me conclude my remarks today with this: Consider Goethe's attitude in its deepest essence. What you believe you find in him, and what you also have within yourselves, is already expressed in his words addressed to another researcher, a very distinguished researcher who had made the following statement:
“No creative spirit penetrates into the innermost depths of nature...
Blessed is he whose only sign is the outer shell.”
Blessed is he to whom it shows
Only its outer shell."
Goethe, on the other hand, said:
I have heard this repeated for sixty years,
I curse it, but secretly;...
Nature has neither core
Nor shell,
It is everything at once;
Examine yourself most of all,
Whether you are core or shell!"
If, in this Goethean spirit, man develops his core, then he also penetrates—albeit only through infinitely long, serious, and sincere research—into the core, into the essence of nature. For this essence of nature is imprinted in man. And what is reflected in man is, correctly understood, nothing other than this essence of nature. Spirit is nothing other than the blossom and fruit of nature. Nature is, in a certain sense, the root of spirit.
This is also true Goetheanism! And spiritual science will have to develop it in a scientific form.
Questions and Answers
Question: If consciousness is correlated with death, how is it that death also occurs in animals, yet the consciousness of animals must be assumed to be different from that of humans under all circumstances?
When I speak about practical questions the day after tomorrow, I also intend—although I always shy away from doing so—to briefly address various questions relating to a concept that is very common today: the concept of the “unconscious,” which also plays a major role in psychoanalysis and analytical psychology, which are well known here in Zurich. In this field, we encounter significant, profoundly incisive questions; and the day after tomorrow we will see, at least in outline, how psychoanalysis' attempts to answer these incisive questions relate to the questions themselves. Today, following on from the question just asked, I would like to consider the concept of the unconscious. Eduard von Hartmann also established the concept of the “unconscious mind” philosophically and thus bases existence, one might say, first on nature, second on the conscious mind, which must always have a natural basis, and third on the unconscious mind, which is purely spiritual but precisely unconscious.
Now, however, the problem is that spiritual science does not know what to do with the concept of the “unconscious” as such. For spiritual science, “unconscious spirit” is roughly the same as “headless human” in the natural realm. Of course, it is possible to think of “spirit” in the abstract, without consciousness, just as it is possible to abstract the human head. It is also possible to draw a headless organism. And there are even people who are hysterically partially blind, that is, not organically blind, but hysterically blind, who are afflicted with the defect that when they walk down the street, they see only the bodies of people and no one's head. There are people who suffer from this particular form of hysterical disorder: they see only the body and no head, so all people are headless. You see, appearances could even provide proof for individual exceptional people that one could also imagine a human reality without heads. But it is not reality. — Thus, the “unconscious spirit” is not reality and can never be reality. How this leads on will be discussed the day after tomorrow. But now let us turn to the question that has been asked: animals as such do not have human consciousness, but they do have consciousness. However, I have already had occasion to remark today that spiritual science is often not as well regarded as today's recognized science, which treats all things more conceptually and less realistically; even in the direction of thinking, spiritual science must proceed differently than is customary today. In physics books, I said, it says: Bodies are impenetrable, that is, in the place in space where one body is, another cannot be. — Spiritual science cannot immediately accept this definition as such, but must say, based on its orientation: A body or a being that fills a space in such a way that no other can be in that space at the same time is indeed impenetrable. So, for the spiritual scientist, what is thought of as a definition simply turns into a postulate or something similar.
Now we must be clear about this: animals may not have human consciousness, but they do have consciousness. Now, the point is that those who think in today's sense, with today's habits of thinking, think: death is death. People die, animals die, and even plants are allowed to die. Yes, it is not that simple for spiritual science. One cannot conclude from the similarity of the conceptual content that there is similarity in reality. Viewed inwardly, viewed in terms of reality, the death of a human being is something quite different from the death of an animal. That is viewed concretely! And to speak of death in relation to plants has, in spiritual science, basically the same meaning as to speak of death in relation to a clock, which also “dies” at some point; isn't that so, it can also “die” at some point. So that should stop. That is not the concept of death! Rather, the concept of death includes many things that make death in humans something essentially different.
And now the following comes into consideration: Animals have a consciousness which is essentially such that what humans send into the sensory zone and experience separately in the sensory zone I mentioned today, animals do not experience in the sensory zone, but rather what animals experience in the sensory zone is similar to what they also have as a life of imagination. The strict separation between perception and imagination, as can be drawn in humans, is not justified for animals. Firstly, this can be recognized immediately through observation, through seeing consciousness; on the other hand, you can also recognize it anatomically and physiologically. I would just like to remind you that, let's say, the eye has a completely different internal organization in animals than in humans. In humans, certain contents of the eye are withdrawn into the inner organization, more into the nervous system, while in animals they are extended into the eye. In certain animals you find the fan, the sword-like appendage: this is the external, anatomical structure that could show how the vital in animals extends into the sensory zone. In humans, this vital force recedes, so that humans experience the presence of their soul in the sensory zone — please take this into account — in such a way that they experience something completely different in this sensory zone than animals experience in their sensory zone. And this, what humans experience in the sensory zone and whose further development is then the imaginative, inspired, intuitive consciousness, which in turn is continued in the life of imagination and in the life of memory, this experience in the sensory zone, is what gives human consciousness a completely different coloring — if I may use the expression — than animal consciousness has.
Many concepts need to be rectified. If you ask a person today: What are the most spiritual ideas that are least connected with the physical basis? — well, I think a large number of people will agree when you say: The most philosophical ideas are the most spiritual! — You see, of all ideas, it is precisely the philosophical ideas — the most abstract ones, including mathematical ideas — that are most closely connected to the physical body! And if there were only philosophical ideas, one could be an absolute materialist, for they are really only physical and have meaning only between birth and death. What is usually considered most spiritual has its basis in the physical world, in the physical body.
But the essential point is that human beings, as spiritual beings, have such a share in their sensory life that in their sensory life, where external nature extends like a gulf because vitality has withdrawn, they actually experience death continuously in the sensory zone. And insofar as this sensory zone is reflected inwardly, the result, the consciousness result of this sensory zone, penetrates the soul life with what I have called atomistic death.
So this is how it is to be understood: that the phenomenon of death is mixed with life in the sensory zone in humans, which justifies bringing death and consciousness together in humans, while in animals the following must be brought together: not spontaneous death — as can also occur in humans — with consciousness, but in animals the gradual extinction of reproductive power must be brought together with what consciousness is. And then, when the reproductive power has faded, death occurs for the animal, while in humans, the phenomenon of death occurs later than is the case with any animal. Humans stand on completely different ground here.
So I would like to emphasize this in particular: one can only gain a proper insight into the relationship between birth and death if one brings together the specific peculiarity of human consciousness, which is connected with the special experience in the sensory zone, with the much more vital experience in the sensory zone that the animal has, so that animal consciousness is not, if I may say so, mixed with what is mixed with human consciousness as death constantly at work within it. And this is illuminated from the other side, because in animals there is no immortal soul from the other side interfering in the phenomenon of death, as is the case with humans.
Question: Can spiritual science tell us anything about the modern concept of entropy in physics?
As far as the modern concept of entropy is concerned, it must first be said that what is included in the concept of entropy is, above all, only abstracted from the idea of inorganic natural science. So if we understand the concept of entropy as follows: a final state of present becoming would be achieved by the fact that, during the transition from mechanical energy to heat energy, more and more heat remains, so that in the end the world can only be in a state of heat, then we are dealing with an abstraction based purely on inorganic laws. As such, there is no objection to it from the standpoint of spiritual science. The proponents of the concept of entropy themselves know that this determination of the final state necessitates the assumption of an initial state; both logically and scientifically, it is then necessary that, if one allows everything to drift into heat death in this way, one also assumes an initial state.
Now, from the point of view of spiritual science, the following results, and I will go straight to the concrete: Firstly, spiritual science cannot, according to its observations, do anything with an idea that is commonplace today in the field of inorganic natural speculation, namely the idea of the atomization of energies, whereby one always thinks that the atomization of energies can run out into infinity. So when I speak of energies, I always think of them in the sense of today's natural science as going into infinity. Spiritual science, based on its experience, cannot do anything with this concept, because all energies, viewed from a spiritual scientific point of view, in their morphogenesis, so to speak, turn out to be elastic. This means that energies that spread out do not dissipate into infinity, but only to a finite limit, and then return to themselves. However, this can happen after such a long time that it is not an issue for what we consider to be our current Earth period. But in fact, in the field of spiritual science, we must see that the concept of dissipation into infinity is nebulous, that any energies that spread out do not dissipate into infinity, but return to themselves. When this concept is applied to the field of entropy, then in the final state we again have the other, polar opposite: that the dispersing energies can, as it were, return to themselves. That is one thing.
But the other is as follows. If you pick up my “Outline of Secret Science,” you will find that in fact — according to a spiritual system of observation, which is only a further elaboration of what I have outlined today — when I go back and construct an initial state using spiritual science, it is not constructed, but seen, this initial state, which I call “Saturn state” in technical terms, is represented as a pure state of heat. And from this state of heat, the entire subsequent development emerges. If physics, with its concept of entropy, arrives at a final state of heat, it arrives at a final state that I myself must accept as the initial state. The consequence of this is that we must start again: as it starts from there. One does not arrive at a “beginning and end,” but rather the beginning and end are only one link in a continuing development. The final state that occurs would then only be the starting point for a continuing development.
Question: Would it not be possible for you to create humans as simple organisms in such a way that it would not be necessary for them to first emerge as head beings and then have an appendage added to them? Natural science also works with very long periods of time and an infinitely long period of development, and I believe that it would be just as possible to create humans as unified organisms.
When dealing with such a matter in such general terms, one can of course always cite what the gentleman has just cited. I would like to emphasize that my intention today was to discuss positive, concrete results of anthroposophically oriented spiritual science, that is, to cite individual examples of positive results. One such example of positive results is precisely this: that if we want to understand human beings not only theoretically as natural beings — which was the subject of my lecture today — we cannot understand them if we view them in the way that is customary today. Human beings are of course also regarded as “unified beings,” which is not the opposite, when they are viewed as head beings with appendages — I said that this is an approximation. What is essential here is where one seeks the starting point for human development, not whether one regards him as a “unitary being,” which is what one seeks further back in human history. If one looks further back for what appears today in metamorphosed form in the head, and regards the rest as an acquisition, then human beings as natural beings become a different kind of being than if one places them in the development of the world in terms of developmental theory, as today's trivial Darwinism, the trivial theory of descent, still does.
The long periods of time are not what matter. Long periods of time are also something purely hypothetical for today's hypotheses. Time can only have any meaning within an explanation if one is able to extract time from other, concrete premises, if one is able, so to speak, to shape the before and after from the concrete, but not if one simply establishes a developmental trend and then introduces time as something external. The descent theorists themselves say: Time is available to us indefinitely. Of course, time is available to us indefinitely. But the question is whether what is available to us for thought also plays the same concrete role in reality, when we actually look at concrete human beings.
The concrete itself is structured in such a way that, in the process of development, what I have called the appendage organism—it is just an approximate expression—turns out to be the younger one and the head organism the older one. This is how time itself is structured. The descent of the head organism goes back to a more distant past than that which is younger. It is really a matter of considering, in the field of spiritual science, that thinking becomes actual and concrete. I would like to emphasize again today that one cannot advance in spiritual science unless one is able to place oneself in reality in a completely different way than today's so-called empirical science, which I certainly do not underestimate. No one can accuse me of underestimating it, judging by my writings. But we must place ourselves in reality in a completely different, concrete way.
Last time, in answering questions here, I said that concepts must be much more real, much more actual. The day after tomorrow, we will return to this realistic thinking in relation to practical human questions and spiritual human questions. Realistic thinking is thinking that is conscious, in every idea it harbors, of the extent to which that idea is grounded in reality. You see, abstractly speaking, a rose blossom that I have in front of me is a real thing; and one can take it as a real thing. For the thinker who is truly grounded in reality with his concepts, this concept of a rosebud does not exist in any other way than that he is aware that this rosebud is something abstract in itself; it is only possible in the context of the whole rose bush, which in turn is connected to the whole earth and so on. So the humanities scholar does not present as a separate idea something that is connected to something else in reality and can be artificially torn out. That is why, whenever the humanities scholar pursues his ideas, he is aware of the extent to which the inner, substantial nature of the ideas carries him into reality. Here is another paradoxical example: you use a microscope, you place a cell nucleus under the microscope. Yes, you now observe this cell nucleus under the microscope, separated from everything that belongs to it. The spiritual scientist is fully aware of this; he knows that observing a cell nucleus through a microscope is different from observing, for example, a small animal through a microscope. When I observe the animal, I see it in its entirety. But when I observe something like a cell nucleus, I am not observing reality in the same sense as I am when I observe the small animal, which does not grow larger and is complete in this way.
This constant accompaniment by the reality character of the life of imagination is one of the first prerequisites for contemplative consciousness. I emphasized realistic thinking, as opposed to the unrealistic thinking that prevails today, in my book “The Riddle of Man,” which was published two years ago. This must be taken into account when considering such a question. I have therefore said that the scientific theory of evolution of the 19th century and up to the present day naturally has its great merits. But it does not deal with the question in sufficient detail. If one wants to study the development of the human being, it is not irrelevant what one takes as the starting point in the human being. For example, there is no objection if someone says: Here I have a living being; this living being in its present form has climbing feet; there are living beings which in their present form — forgive me for comparing a very small animal with human beings, but that is of no consequence in the field of natural science — there are small animals, lice, forgive me for using such a harsh word, ‘lice’, which develop climbing feet. These climbing feet are a later product of development. The ancestral forms do not have these climbing feet. This is an adaptation to later conditions. Now it is important to understand that the ancestral form did not have climbing feet under other conditions; under later conditions, this species of lice developed climbing feet. Many examples could be cited. The point is to understand this concrete relationship. Forgive me for moving on to humans: the point is to understand that the ancestral form has the predisposition that leads in direct descent, in direct continuation, to the main organ, and that the other features are later acquisitions. This is the concrete relationship at issue. And if one does not view human beings in this way, one cannot understand them in connection with the whole development of nature.
Of course, I can only hint at these things. As I said, I would have to give a long course if I were to present all the details to you. But anthroposophy is still in its infancy today, and please do not consider it silly when I say that we are not yet fortunate enough to be able to present anthroposophy in recognized courses. It must be given as inspiration in individual lectures, in which one can only point to one thing or another. Hence all the imperfections that are of course inevitable in such communication. But what I have said is no more contrary to the view of the development of the human being as a unified being than the development of lice, which do not yet have climbing feet, into lice with climbing feet is contrary to the view that it has developed as a unified being. So it is a question of the characteristics of the development process, of the specifics of the development process. That is what matters in this case.