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Human Values in Education
GA 310

24 July 1924, Arnheim

VIII. Modelling of Bodies

You will have seen that in anthroposophical education great value is laid on what lies in the consciousness of the teacher; there must live in his consciousness a knowledge of man that is whole, that is complete in itself. Now, as various examples have already shown you, the conception of the world which is usual today is ill-adapted to penetrating deeply into the human being. The following explanation will make my meaning clear. In studying man, we have to distinguish between his constituent parts: firstly his physical body, his physical organisation, then the finer ether or life-body which contains the formative forces, the forces which live in growth and in the processes of nourishment, and which, in the early years of childhood, are transmuted into the forces of memory. Then we have to add everything that the plant does not yet possess, although it, too, has growth and nourishment, and even to some extent lives in memory, in so far as it always retains and repeats its form. The next member of his being man has in common with the animal; it is the sentient body, the astral body, the bearer of sensation. Added to this we have the ego-organisation. These four members we have to distinguish from one another, and in so far as we do this we shall gain a true insight into the being of man and into human evolution.

To begin with man receives his first physical body, if I may so express myself, out of the forces of heredity. This is prepared for him by his father and mother. In the course of the first 7 years of life this physical body is cast off, but during this time it serves as a model from which the etheric body can build up the second body. Today people make the things confronting them so frightfully simple. If a ten-year-old child has a nose like his father's they say it is inherited. But it is not so simple as this, for as a matter of fact the nose is only inherited up to the time of the change of teeth. For if the ether body is so strong that it rejects the model of the inherited nose, then in the course of the first seven years its shape will change. If on the other hand the ether body is weak, it will not be able to free itself from the model and at the age of 10 the shape of the nose will still be the same. Looked at from an external point of view it seems as though the concept of heredity might still have the same significance in the second 7 year period as it had in the first 7 years. In such cases people are wont to say: “Truth must be simple.” In reality things are very complicated. Concepts formed today are mostly the result of a love of ease rather than the urgent desire for truth. It is therefore of real importance that we learn to look with understanding at this body of formative forces, this etheric body, which gradually in the course of the first 7 years creates the second physical body, that in its turn also lasts for 7 years. The etheric body is therefore a creator of form, a sculptor. And just as a true sculptor requires no model, but works independently, while a bad sculptor makes everything according to the model, so in the first life period, and working towards the second period, the ether body, or body of formative forces, fashions the second physical body of the human being. Our present day intellectuality enables us to acquire knowledge of the physical body; it serves this purpose admirably, and anyone lacking intellect cannot acquire such knowledge. But our university studies can take us no further than this. For the ether body cannot be comprehended by means of the intellect, but rather by pictorial, intuitive perception. It would be immensely important if the teacher could learn to understand the ether body. You cannot say: We surely cannot expect all our teachers to develop clairvoyance and so be able to describe the ether body!—But let the teacher practise the art of sculpture instead of studying the things which are so often studied in University courses. Anyone who really works at sculpture and enters into its formative nature will learn to experience the inner structure of forms, and indeed of just those forms with which the human body of formative forces is also working. Anyone who has a healthy sense of form will experience the plastic, sculptural element only in the animal and human kingdoms, not in the plant kingdom. Just imagine a sculptor who wanted to portray plants by means of sculpture! Out of sheer anger one would feel like knocking him down! The plant consists of the physical body and the ether body; with these it is complete. The animal on the other hand envelops the ether body with the astral body and this is still more the case with man. This is why we can learn to comprehend the human etheric body when, as sculptors, we work our way into the inner structure of the forms of Nature. This, too, is why modelling should take a foremost place in the curriculum of a training college, for it provides the means whereby the teacher may learn to understand the body of formative forces. The following may well be taken as a fundamental principle: A teacher who has never studied modelling really understands nothing about the development of the child. An art of education based on the knowledge of man must inevitably induce a sense of apprehension because it draws attention to such things as these and makes corresponding demands. But it can also induce apprehension because it seems as though one must become frightfully critical, rejecting everything that is common practice.

Just as the ether body works at freeing itself in order to become independent at the time of the change of teeth, so does the astral body work in order to become independent at puberty. The ether body is a sculptor, the astral body a musician. Its structure is of the very essence of music. What proceeds from the astral body of man and is projected into form is purely musical in its nature. Anyone able to grasp this knows that in order to understand the human being a further stage of training must develop receptivity towards an inner musical conception of the world. Those who are unmusical understand nothing whatever about the formation of the astral body in man, for it is fashioned out of music. If therefore we study old epochs of culture which were still built up out of inner musical intuition, if we enter into such oriental epochs of culture in which even language was imbued with music, then we shall find a musical conception of the world entering even into the forms of architecture. Later on, in Greece, it became otherwise, and now, especially in the West, it has become very different, for we have entered an age when emphasis is laid on the mechanical and mathematical. In the Goetheanum at Dornach an attempt was made to go back again in this respect. Musicians have sensed the music underlying the forms of the Goetheanum. But generally speaking there is little understanding for such things today.

It is therefore necessary that we should gain in this way a concrete understanding of the human being and reach the point at which we are able to grasp the fact that man's physiological and anatomical form is a musical creation in so far as it stems from the astral body. Think how intimately a musical element is connected with the processes of breathing and the circulation of the blood. Man is a musical instrument in respect of his breathing and blood circulation. And if you take the relationship between the breathing and the circulation of the blood: 18 breaths in a minute, 72 pulse beats in a minute, you get a ratio of 4:1. Of course this varies individually in many ways, but by and large you find that man has an inner musical structure. The ratio 4:1 is the expression of something which, in itself an inner rhythmical relationship, nevertheless impinges on and affects the whole organisation in which man lives and experiences his own being, In olden times the scansion of verses was so regulated that the line was regulated by the breath and the metrical foot by the circulation.

Diagram 1

Dactyl, Dactyl, Caesura, Dactyl, Dactyl. Four in one, the line expressive of the man.

But what man expresses in language is expressed still earlier in his form. Whoever understands the human being from a musical aspect knows that sound, actual tones, are working within him. At man's back, just where the shoulder blades meet and from there are carried further into the whole human being, forming and shaping him, are those human forms which are constituted out of the prime or key-note. Then there is a correspondence in the form of the upper arm with the second, and in the lower arm with the third. And because there is a major and minor third—not a major and minor second—we have one bone in the upper arm, but two in the lower arm, the radius and the ulna; and these correspond to the major and minor third. We are formed according to the notes of the scale, the musical intervals He hidden within us. And those who only study man in an external way do not know that the human form is constituted out of musical tones. Coming to the hand, we have the fourth and fifth, and then, in the experience of free movement, we go right out of ourselves; then, as it were, we take hold of outer Nature. This is the reason for the particular feeling we have with the sixth and seventh, a feeling enhanced by experiencing the movements of eurythmy. You must bear in mind that the use of the third made its appearance comparatively late in the development of music. The experience of the third is an inward one; with the third man comes into an inner relationship with himself, whereas at the time when man lived in the seventh he experienced most fully the going outwards into the world beyond himself. The experience of giving oneself up to the outer world lives especially strongly in the seventh.

And just as man experiences the inherent nature of music, so the forms of his body are shaped out of music itself. Therefore if the teacher wishes to be a good music teacher he will make a point of taking singing with the children from the very beginning of their school life. This must be done; he must understand as an actual fact that singing induces emancipation; for the astral body has previously sung and has brought forth the forms of the human body. Between the change of teeth and puberty, the astral body frees itself, becomes emancipated. And out of the very essence of music emerges that which forms man and makes him an independent being. No wonder then that the music teacher who understands these things, who knows that man is permeated through and through with music, will quite naturally allow this knowledge to enrich the singing lesson and his teaching of instrumental music. This is why we try not only to introduce singing as early as possible into the education of the child, but also to let those children with sufficient aptitude learn to play a musical instrument, so that they have the possibility of actually learning to grasp and enter into the musical element which lives in their human form, as it emancipates and frees itself.

But all these things will be approached in the right way if only the teacher has the right feeling and attitude towards them. It is important to understand clearly that every training college should in fact be so constituted that its curriculum should run parallel with medical studies at a university. The first approach should lead to the intellectual understanding which can be gained from a study of the corpse; this should lead further to an artistic understanding of form, and it can only be acquired when, side by side with the study of physical anatomy, the student practises modelling. This again should lead to a musical understanding. For a true knowledge of man is not attained unless there is added to the earlier medical studies a comprehension of the part music plays in the world. During his college training the student teacher should acquire an understanding of music, not in a purely external way, but inwardly, so that he is able by means of this inner perception to see music everywhere. Music is truly everywhere in the world; one only has to find it. If however we wish to obtain an understanding of the ego-organisation it is essential to master and make one's own the inner nature and structure of some language.

So you see, we understand the physical body with the intellect, the etheric body through an understanding of form, the astral body through an understanding of music; while the ego, on the other hand, can only be grasped by means of a deep and penetrating understanding of language. It is just here, however, that we are particularly badly off today, for there is a great deal we do not know. Let us take an example from the German language. In German something is described that rests quietly on our body, is round and has eyes and nose in front. It is called in German Kopf, in Italian testa. We take a dictionary and find that the translation of Kopf is testa. But that is purely external and superficial. It is not even true. The following is true. Out of a feeling for the vowels and consonants contained in the word Kopf, for instance, I experience the o quite definitely as a form which I could draw: it is, as eurythmists know, the rounded form which in front is developed into nose and mouth. We find in this combination of sounds, if we will only let ourselves experience it, everything that is given in the form of the head. So, if we wish to express this form, we make use of larynx and lungs and pronounce the sounds approximating to K-o-pf. But now we can say: In the head there is something which enables one person to speak to another. There is a means of communication. We can impart to another person the content of something which we wish to make known—a will or testament for instance.—If you want to describe the head, not in relation to its round form, but as that which imparts information, which defines clearly what one wishes to communicate, then language out of its own nature gives you the means of doing so. Then you say testa. You give a name to that which imparts something when you say testa; you give a name to the rounded form when you say Kopf. If the Italian wanted to describe roundness, he too would say Kopf; and likewise, if the German wanted to express communication, he would say testa. But both the Italian and the German have become accustomed to expressing in language something different, for it is not possible to express totally different things in a single word. Therefore we do not say exactly the same thing when we speak the word testa or Kopf. The languages are different because their words express different things.

Now let us try to enter into the way in which a member of a particular nation lives with the language of his folk-soul. The German way of living in his language is a way of plastic formation. German language is really the language of sculptural contemplation. That has come about in German because in the whole evolution of speech German is a further continuation of the Greek element up into Central Europe. If you study Italian and the Romance languages in general you find the whole configuration is such that they are developed out of the motor function of the soul. They are not contemplative. Italian has formed itself out of an internal dancing, an internal singing, out of the soul's participation in the whole organism of the body. From this we see how the ego stands within the substance of the Folk-Soul; through making a study of the inner connections, the inner make-up of language, we learn to know how the ego works.

This is why it is necessary for the teacher to acquire not only a feeling for music, but an inner feeling for language—taking as a starting point the fact that in the more modern languages we have only retained soul experiences, experiences of feeling, in the interjections. For instance, when in German we say “etsch!”—it is as though someone had slipped and fallen and we want to express this, together with the amusement it has caused. In the interjections we still have something in language which is felt. In other respects language has become abstract, it hovers above things, no longer lives in them. It must, however, again become living and real. We must learn to wrestle with language, we must feel our ego going right through the sounds. Then we shall feel that it is something different whether we say Kopf and thereby have the feeling that we should like to draw the form of the head straight away, or whether we say testa and immediately have the feeling that we want to dance. It is just this feeling one's way into the activities of life which must be developed quite specially in the teacher.

If therefore the teacher can accustom himself to regarding the physical and the soul-spiritual together—for they are indeed one, as I have repeatedly impressed upon you—and if he succeeds in doing this ever more and more, he will not be tempted to enter into abstractions and intellectualities, but he will have the will to keep his teaching and educational practice between the change of teeth and puberty within the sphere of the pictorial. There is nothing more distasteful, when one is accustomed to think pictorially about real things, than to have someone coming and talking intellectually in a roundabout way. This is a frightfully unpleasant experience. For example, one is accustomed to seeing something in life as it actually takes place, one only has the wish to describe it as it is, one is living completely in the picture of it; then somebody comes along with whom one would like to come to an understanding, but he forms his judgment purely on the basis of intellect and immediately begins with: It was beautiful, or ugly, or magnificent or wonderful—all these things are one or the other—and one feels in one's soul as if one's hair were being torn out by the roots. It is especially bad when one would really like to know what the other man has experienced and he simply does not describe it. For instance, I may have made the acquaintance of someone who raises his knee very high when he walks—but this man starts immediately with: “He walks well” or “he has a good carriage.” But in saying this he tells us nothing about the other man, only about his own ego. But we do not want to know this; we want an objective description. Today people find this very difficult. Hence they do not describe the things, but the effect the things make upon them, as “beautiful” or “ugly.” This gradually enters even into the formation of language. Instead of describing the physiognomy of a face, one says: “He looked awful”—or something of the kind.

These are things which should enter into the deepest part of a teachers' training, to get rid of oneself and to come to grips with reality. If one succeeds in doing this, one will also be able to establish a relationship with the child. The child feels just as I described, that his hair is being pulled out by the roots if the teacher does not get to the point, but speaks about his own feelings; whereas, if he will only keep to what is concrete and real and describe this, the child will enter into it all immediately. It is therefore of great importance for the teacher that he does not overdo—his thinking. I always feel it to be a great difficulty with the teachers of the Waldorf School if they think too much, whereas it gives me real satisfaction when they develop the faculty of observing even the smallest things, and so discovering their special characteristics. If someone were to say to me: “This morning I saw a lady who was wearing a violet dress; it was cut in such and such a fashion and her shoes had high heels” and so on—I should like it better than if someone were to come and say: Man consists of physical body, etheric body, astral body and ego,—for the one proves that he stands firmly in life, that he has developed his etheric body, the other that he knows with his intellect that there is an etheric body etc. But this does not amount to much.

I must express myself drastically in this way so that we learn to recognise what is of the greatest importance in the teacher's training; not that he learns to spin out his thoughts about many things, but that he learns to observe life. That he is then able to make use of such observation in life is something that goes without saying. Everything is ruined, however, if he racks his brains over how he should make use of it. This is why anyone who wishes to describe something arising out of Spiritual Science should make very strong efforts to avoid using ordinary abstract concepts, for by so doing he gets right away from what he really wants to say. And especially it is the case that the impression made on anyone who tries to grasp things in a characteristic way will be such that he learns to describe things in the round, not with sharp edges. Here is a drastic example. To me it is unpleasant to say in certain circumstances: “There stands a pale man.” That hurts. On the other hand the sentence begins to breathe and have reality if I say: There stands a man who is pale,—in other words, if I do not give a description in stiff, ordinary concepts, but characterise with ideas that enclose it. And one will find that children have much more inner understanding for things when they are expressed in relative form, than they have for bare nouns qualified by adjectives. Children prefer a gentle way of handling things. When I say to them: “There stands a pale man”—it is just as if I was hitting at something with a hammer; but if I say: “There stands a man who is pale”—it is like a stroking movement of my hand. Children find it much more possible to adapt themselves to the world if things are presented in this second form rather than by hitting at them. A certain fineness of feeling must be developed in order to make oneself a sculptor in the use of language in order to put it to the service of the art of education. It also lies in the sphere of education as an art if one strives to gain a sufficient mastery of language to enable one to articulate clearly in the classroom and to know when teaching how to emphasise what is important and to pass lightly over the unimportant.

We lay great value on just these kind of things, and again and again in the teachers' conferences attention is drawn to the imponderable in teaching. For if one really studies a class, one notices all sorts of things which can be of immense help. For instance, suppose one has a class of 28 boys and girls and one wants to give these children something which they can make their own, something which will enrich their inner life. It may perhaps be a little poem, or even a great poem. You try to teach this poem to the class. Now you will observe the following: If you let them all recite in chorus, or even a third or half of the class, each child will speak and be able to say it; but if you then test one or other of the pupils in order to see if he can say it alone you will find that he cannot. It is not that you have overlooked him and failed to see that he was silent, for he can speak it perfectly well in chorus with the others. The fact is that a group spirit pervades and activates the class and one can make use of this. So if one really works with the whole class, regarding the children as a chorus, it seems at first that this calls up in them a quicker power of comprehension. One day, however, I had to point out the shadow side of this procedure and so I will now entrust you with a secret. It is this. There are also shadow sides in the Waldorf School! Gradually one finds one's way and discovers that handling the class as a chorus and allowing the children to speak together goes quite well; but if this is overdone, if one works only with the class, without taking the individual child into account, the result will be that in the end no child by himself will know anything.

We must consider the shadow side of all those things and be clear as to how far we can go, for instance, in handling the class as a chorus and to what extent it is necessary to take the individual child separately. Here theories do not help. To say that it is good to treat the class as a chorus, or to maintain that things should be done in this or the other way is never any use, because in the complexities of life what can be done in one way can also, given other conditions, be done in another way. The worst that can happen in educational science—which indeed is art rather than science—the worst that can happen is that directions are given which have an abstract character and are based on definitions. Educational instructions should consist solely in this, that the teacher is so guided that he enters with understanding into the development of this or that human being, and by means of the most convincing examples is led to a knowledge of man.

Method follows of itself when we proceed in this way. As an example let us consider method in the teaching of history. To want to teach history to a child before the 9th or 10th year is a quite futile endeavour, for the course of history is a closed book to the child before this age. It is only with the 9th or 10th year—you can observe this for yourselves—that he begins to be interested in individual human beings. If you portray Caesar, or Achilles, Hector, Agamemnon or Alcibiades simply as personalities, allowing what belongs to history to appear only as a background, if you paint the whole picture in this way the child will show the greatest interest in it. It will be evident that he is eager to know more about this sort of thing. He will feel the urge to enter further into the lives of these historical personalities if you describe them in this way. Comprehensive pictures of personalities complete in themselves; or comprehensive pictures of how a meal-time looked in a particular century, and in some other century; describe plastically, pictorially, how people used to eat before forks were invented, how they were accustomed to eat in Ancient Rome; describe plastically, pictorially, how a Greek walked, conscious of each step, aware of the form of his leg, feeling this form; then describe how the people of the Old Testament, the Hebrew people walked, having no feeling for form, but slouching along, letting their arms loose; call up feelings for these quite separate and distinct things which can be expressed in pictures; this will give you the right approach to the teaching of history between the 10th and 12th years.

At this latter age we can take a further step and proceed to historical relationships, for it is only now that the child becomes able to understand such concepts as cause and effect. Only now can history be presented as something that is connected, that has cohesion. Everything that lives in history must, however, be worked out in such a way as to show its gradual development. We come to the concept of growth, of becoming. Call up before you the following picture. We are now living in the year 1924 [The date of the lectures.]. Charles the Great lived from 760 until 814, so if the year 800 be taken as the approximate date, we find he lived 1120 years before us. If we imagine ourselves now living in the world as a child and growing up, we can reckon that in the course of a century we can have: son or daughter, father or mother, grandfather and perhaps even a great-grandfather, that is to say 3 or 4 generations following one after the other in the course of a hundred years. We can show these 3 or 4 generations by getting someone to stand up and represent the son or daughter. The father or mother will stand behind, resting their hands on the shoulders of the one in front; the grandfather will place his hands on the shoulders of the father, and the great-grandfather his hands on the shoulders of the grandfather. If you imagine placing son, father and grandfather one behind the other in this way, as people belonging to the present age, and behind them the course of the generations in a further ten centuries, you will get all told 11 times 3 or 4 generations, let us say 44 generations. If therefore you were to place 44 people one behind the other, each with his hands on the shoulders of the one in front the first can be a man of the present day and the last can be Charles the Great. In this way you can change the time relationships in history, which are so difficult to realise, into relationships which are purely spatial. You can picture it also in this way: Here you have one man who is speaking to another; the latter turns round and speaks to the one behind, who in turn does the same thing, and so it goes on until you come right back to the time when Peter spoke to Christ. In doing this you get the whole development of the Christian Church in the conversation between the people standing one behind the other. The whole apostolic succession is placed visually before you.

It really amounts to this. One should seize every opportunity of making use of what is pictorial and tangible. This is all the more necessary because in this way one learns to enter into reality, thereby learning also to form everything in accordance with what is real. It is actually quite arbitrary if I place 3 beans before the child, then add another 3 beans and yet another 3 or maybe 4, and then proceed to teach addition: 3 plus 3 plus 4 equals 10. This is somewhat arbitrary. But it is quite another thing if I have a small pile of beans and do not know to begin with how many there are. This accords with the reality of things in the world. Now I divide the pile. This the child understands immediately. I give one part to one child, another part to a second child and a third part to a third child. So you see, I divide the pile, first showing the child how many beans there are altogether. I begin with the sum and proceed to the parts. I can let the child count the beans because that is just a repetitive process, 1, 2, 3 and so on, up to 12. But now I divide them into 4, into 4 more and still another 4. If I begin with the sum and proceed to the addenda the child will take it in quite easily. It is in accordance with reality. The other way is abstract, one just puts things together, one is intellectualistic. It is also more real if I get the child to the point when he must answer the following question: If I have 12 apples and somebody takes them, goes away and only brings 7 back, how many has he lost? Here one starts with the minuend and goes from the remainder to the subtrahend; one does not subtract, but goes from the remainder, that is to say, from what remains as the result of a living process, to what has been taken away.

Thus one's efforts are not everywhere directed towards abstractions, but find their outlet in reality; they are linked with life, they strive after life. This reacts on the child and makes him bright and lively, whereas for the most part the teaching of arithmetic has a very deadening effect. The children remain somewhat dead and apathetic, and the inevitable result of this is the calculating machine. The very fact that we have the calculating machine is a proof of how difficult it is to make the teaching of arithmetic perceptually evident. We must however not only do this, but we must learn to read from life itself.

Achter Vortrag

Sie werden gesehen haben, welcher Wert innerhalb der anthroposophischen Pädagogik gelegt wird auf das, was im Bewußtsein des Lehrers liegt: daß in seinem Bewußtsein wirklich lebt eine vollständige, in sich abgeschlossene Menschenerkenntnis. Nun ist ja die heutige Weltanschauung, wie Sie aus verschiedenen Beispielen gesehen haben, nicht gerade sehr geeignet, tief hineinzudringen in die Menschenwesenheit. Sie werden verstehen, was ich meine, wenn ich das noch in der folgenden Weise auseinandersetze.

Wir müssen ja am Menschen unterscheiden erstens seinen physischen Leib, seine physische Organisation, dann den feineren, den Äther- oder Lebensleib, der die Bildekräfte enthält, die Kräfte, die im Wachstum und in den Ernährungsverhältnissen leben, und die sich dann in den ersten Lebensjahren verfeinern und zu den Gedächtniskräften werden. Weiter aber müssen wir alles das unterscheiden, was nun die Pflanze noch nicht hat, die auch Wachstum und Ernährung hat und die in gewissem Sinne sogar im Gedächtnis lebt, indem sie ihre Form immer wieder beibehält: dieses nächste Glied ist beim Menschen, beim Tiere der Empfindungsleib, der astralische Leib, der Träger der Empfindungen. Und dann haben wir noch die Ich-Organisation. Diese vier Wesensglieder des Menschen müssen wir voneinander unterscheiden. Und wir werden dadurch, daß wir sie unterscheiden, einen wirklichen Einblick in die menschliche Wesenheit, in ihr Wesen, in ihre EntwickeJung bekommen.

Der Mensch bekommt zunächst, wenn ich mich so ausdrücken darf, seinen ersten physischen Leib mit aus der Vererbung heraus. Der wird ihm zubereitet von Vater und Mutter. Dieser physische Leib wird im Laufe der ersten 7 Lebensjahre abgeworfen, und er dient in dieser Zeit dem Ätherleib als Modell, um den zweiten Leib aufzubauen. Die Menschen machen sich ja heute die Dinge, die in der Wirklichkeit vorliegen, so furchtbar einfach. Wenn ein zehnjähriges Kind die Nase ähnlich hat mit seinem Vater, so sagt man, das ist vererbt. Aber so einfach liegen die Dinge nicht, sondern vererbt ist die Nase nur bis zum Zahnwechsel. Denn wenn der Ätherleib so stark ist, daß er sich auflehnt gegen das Modell der vererbten Nase, dann ändert sich die Form der Nase im Verlaufe der ersten 7 Jahre. Wenn der Ätherleib dagegen schwach ist, behält er sklavisch die Form der Nase bei, und es erscheint im 10. Lebensjahre noch immer dieselbe Form. Äußerlich genommen schaut es so aus, als wenn der Begriff der Vererbung in den zweiten 7 Lebensjahren immer noch dieselbe Bedeutung hätte wie in den ersten 7 Jahren; aber die Leute lieben es ja heute, in solchen Fällen zu sagen, die Wahrheit müsse einfach sein. In Wirklichkeit sind die Dinge sehr kompliziert. Die Anschauungen, die heute gebildet werden, sind zumeist aus der Begierde der Bequemlichkeit heraus gebildet, nicht aus dem Drang nach Wahrheit.

So handelt es sich wirklich darum, daß wir zunächst hineinschauen lernen in diesen Bildekräfteleib, in diesen ätherischen Leib, der nach und nach in den ersten 7 Jahren herausarbeitet den zweiten physischen Leib, der wiederum für 7 Jahre da ist. Der ätherische Leib ist daher ein Plastiker, er ist ein Bildhauer. Und wie ein echter Bildhauer kein “Modell braucht, sondern selbständig arbeitet, während ein schlechter Bildhauer alles nach dem Modell macht, so arbeitet in der ersten Lebensperiode nach der zweiten Lebensperiode hin der Äther- oder Bildekräfteleib an dem zweiten physischen Leib des Menschen. Wir können an den physischen Leib heran mit unserer heutigen intellektuellen Erkenntnis; damit können wir den physischen Leib ganz prächtig begreifen. Und wer nicht Intellektualität hat, der begreift ihn nicht. Aber da hören wir dann mit unserem Hochschulstudium auf. Denn denÄtherleib begreift man nicht mit Intellektualität, sondern mit bildhafter Anschauung. Das wäre für den Lehrer außerordentlich notwendig, daß er lernt, denÄtherleib zu begreifen. Sie können nicht sagen: Wir können doch unsere Lehrer nicht alle so ausbilden, daß sie hellsichtig werden und den Ätherleib schildern! - Aber lassen Sie einmal die Lehrer im Seminar statt der Dinge, die sie vielfach dort lernen, modellieren, lassen Sie sie Bildhauerkunst treiben, da lebt sich der Mensch ein, wenn er wirklich bildhauerische Kunst aus der gestaltenden Natur heraus betreibt, in das innere Gefüge von Formen und zwar gerade von solchen Formen, mit denen der Bildekräfteleib des Menschen arbeitet. Denn wer gesund plastisch empfindet, der empfindet im Bildhauerischen nur Tierisches und Menschliches, nicht Pflanzliches. Stellen Sie sich einmal einen Bildhauer vor, der in Skulpturen Pflanzen darstellen würde: man würde sie umhauen vor Ärger! Die Pflanze ist fertig mit dem physischen Leib und demÄtherleib; sie ist tatsächlich damit fertig. Das Tier aber überwindet den Ätherleib mit dem astralischen Leib. Der Mensch erst recht. Daher können wir beim Menschen den ätherischen Leib begreifen, wenn wir uns bildhauerisch in das innere Gefüge von Formen in der Natur hineinarbeiten. Deshalb sollte Modellieren vor allen Dingen Seminarwissenschaft sein; dann fängt man an, den Bildekräfteleib zu begreifen. Man sollte schon den Grundsatz haben: ein Lehrer, der nie Modellieren gelernt hat, versteht eigentlich von der Entwickelung des Kindes nichts. So grausam muß einmal schon diejenige pädagogische Kunst sein, die sich auf Menschenerkenntnis gründen will, daß sie auf solche Dinge aufmerksam macht; so grausam, weil man solche Dinge verlangt, aber auch so grausam, weil man scheinbar so ein furchtbar ablehnender Kritiker gegenüber allem wird, was heute getrieben wird.

Ebenso wie der Ätherleib da arbeitet, um herauszukommen und selbständig zu werden mit dem Zahnwechsel, so arbeitet wiederum der astralische Leib, der dann selbständig wird mit der Geschlechtsreife. Der Ätherleib ist ein Bildhauer, der Astralleib ein Musiker. Er verkörpert in sich alles, was musikalisch ist; er ist ganz aus der musikalischen Struktur heraus gebildet. Und das, was im Menschen aus dem astralischen Leib in die Form schießt, ist durchaus musikalisch gebildet. Wer das verstehen kann, der weiß, daß die weitere Seminarbildung darauf hinauslaufen muß, das Innere der musikalischen Weltauffassung in sich aufzunehmen, um den Menschen zu verstehen. Der Nichtmusiker versteht wiederum gar nichts von dem, was im Menschen aus dem astralischen Leib heraus gebildet ist; denn das ist musikalisch gebildet. Gehen wir daher in alte Kulturen hinein, die noch aus dem Musikalischen heraus gestaltet sind, in die orientalischen Kulturen, die selbst in der Sprache noch Musikalisches haben, dann finden wir bis in die Architektur hinein die Bauformen aus der musikalischen Weltauffassung heraus gestaltet. Das ist dann schon in Griechenland anders geworden, und es ist besonders im Abendland anders geworden, denn da ist es in das Mechanische und Mathematische hineingegangen. Im Dornacher Goetheanum versuchte man wieder darauf zurückzukommen. Musiker haben auch durchaus dieses Dornacher Goetheanum als musikalisch empfunden. Aber dafür hat man im allgemeinen heute nicht viel Verständnis.

So handelt es sich darum, daß man in dieser Weise die Menschenwesenheit konkret aufzufassen lernt und imstande ist, AnatomischPhysiologisches, insofern es aus dem astralischen Leibe heraus stammt, musikalisch zu begreifen. Denken Sie, wie innig das Musikalische zusammenhängt mit dem Atmungs- und Zirkulationsprozeß. Der Mensch ist ganz ein Musikinstrument, insofern er ein Atmer ist und einen Zirkulationsprozeß hat. Und wenn Sie das Verhältnis zwischen Atmung und Blutzirkulation nehmen: 18 Atemzüge in der Minute, 72 Pulsschläge in der Minute, ergibt ein Verhältnis von 4:1, in der mannigfaltigsten Weise beim Menschen individualisiert, dann finden Sie, daß der Mensch eine innerlich musikalische Struktur hat. 4:1, das drückt etwas aus, was innerlicher Verhältnisrhythmus ist, was aber in der ganzen menschlichen Organisation sich ausprägt, in dem der Mensch durch seine Wesenheit leben will. Wenn in alten Zeiten skandiert werden sollte, so wurde die Zeile nach dem Atem geordnet, der einzelne Versfuß nach der Zirkulation:

AltName

Daktylus -— Daktylus — Zäsur — Daktylus — Daktylus: vier in einem. Der Mensch drückt sich selber aus.

Aber was der Mensch dann in der Sprache ausdrückt, das drückt er ja vorher schon in seiner Form aus. Wer den Menschen musikalisch versteht, der weiß, daß der Ton in ihm wirkt. Was da rückwärts beim Menschen sitzt, wo die Schulterblätter zusammengehen, was dort beginnt und sich von da in den ganzen Menschen hinein formend gestaltet, das sind diejenigen Menschenformen, die aus der Prim heraus sich konstituierten; geht es weiter zum Oberarm, so geht die Form nach der Sekund über. Und geht es zum Unterarm, so kommen wir in die Terz. Und weil es eine große und eine kleine Terz gibt — nicht eine große und eine kleine Sekund -, deshalb haben wir einen Oberarmknochen; aber wir haben große und kleine Terz, und daher zwei Unterarmknochen: Speiche und Elle. In diesem allem steckt die Tonskala; wir sind nach ihr gebildet. Und wer den Menschen nur äußerlich studiert, der weiß nicht, daß nach den Tönen der Mensch in seiner Form gestaltet ist. Und kommen wir dann zur Hand, so kommen wir damit zur Quart und dann in die Quinte. Und in der freien Beweglichkeit kommen wir dann ganz aus uns heraus; da ergreifen wir die andere Natur. Daher die eigentümliche Empfindung, die man hat bei den Sexten und Septimen, namentlich wenn man in der Eurythmie sich in die Dinge hineinlebt. Denken Sie nur, wie der Stil wird der verhältnismäßig spät in der musikalischen Entwickelung erscheinenden Terz, er wird so, daß der Mensch in sein Inneres kommt, das in der Terz lebt; während dann, wenn der Mensch in der Septime lebt, der Stil so wird, daß man am besten das Aufgehen in die Außenwelt hat. Das Sich-Aufopfern ist besonders in der Septime drinnen.

Und so wie der Mensch das Musikalische erlebt, so ist er selber in seinen Formen aus dem Musikalischen heraus gebildet. Will der Lehrer daher ein guter Musiklehrer sein, will er namentlich, wie es schon vom Anfange des volksschulartigen Zeitalters an der Fall sein muß, dem Kinde Gesang beibringen, was sein muß, dann muß er tatsächlich verstehen, daß sich der Gesang emanzipiert; denn der astralische Leib hat früher gesungen und hat die Formen des Menschen bewirkt. Jetzt emanzipiert sich der astralische Leib zwischen Zahnwechsel und Geschlechtsreife. Und was aus dem Musikalischen herausdringt, das ist, was den Menschen selbständig gestaltet. Kein Wunder, wenn das, was so vom Menschen durchdrungen wird, von einem die Dinge so verstehenden Musiklehrer wie selbstverständlich in den Gesangunterricht hineingebracht wird, und dann wieder in das Instrumental-Musikalische hineingebracht wird. Daher versuchen wir so früh als möglich und sofern die Kinder dafür Begabung haben, das Kind von früh an nicht nur an den Gesang, sondern direkt an die Handhabung irgendeines Musikinstrumentes heranzubringen, damit es die Möglichkeit hat, das Musikalische, das in seiner Form lebt, wenn es sich emanzipiert, nun wirklich auch aufzufassen.

Aber alle diese Dinge werden recht, wenn auch die rechte Gesinnung dafür im Lehrer lebt. Wenn man so sich darüber klar ist, daß eigentlich jede Seminarbildung darin bestehen müßte, sozusagen parallel zu gehen mit der medizinischen Universität, die nun auch zuerst führen sollte zum intellektuellen Verständnis, das man an der Leiche gewinnt; dann zum plastischen Verständnis, das man aber nicht gewinnt, wenn man nicht neben dem physikalisch-anatomischen Verständnis später Modellieren treibt; dann sollte sie führen zum musikalischen Verständnis. Denn eine wirkliche Menschenerkenntnis gewinnt man nicht, wenn man nicht zu dem früheren medizinischen Studium musikalisches Verständnis in sich aufnimmt, wie es in der Welt wirkt; nicht nur äußerlich, sondern innerlich müßte man auch in der Seminarbildung in das Musikverständnis hineinkommen und es anwenden, um überall Musik zu sehen. Sie ist ja überall in der Welt, wenn man sie nur finden kann. Will man nun aber die Ich-Organisation verstehen, so muß man unbedingt das innere Gefüge irgendeiner Sprache in sich tragen.

Also wir begreifen den physischen Leib mit dem Verstande, den ätherischen Leib mit dem plastischen Verständnis, den astralischen Leib mit dem musikalischen Verständnisse, die Ich-Organisation dagegen mit einem durchdringenden Sprachverständnisse. Aber damit steht es heute besonders schlecht. Da weiß man vieles gar nicht. Man schaut heute zum Beispiel nach, wie in irgendeiner Sprache, zum Beispiel in der deutschen, dieses Ding bezeichnet wird, das ruhig auf unserem Leib droben sitzt, dieses runde Ding, das vorne Augen und eine Nase hat. Es wird im Deutschen als Kopf bezeichnet, im Italienischen als testa. Man nimmt das Lexikon und weiß, die Übersetzung von Kopf ist testa. Aber das ist ja nur eine Äußerlichkeit, eine Oberflächlichkeit. Denn so ist es ja gar nicht wahr. Wahr an der Sache ist, daß ich, aus der Empfindung des Vokalischen und Konsonantischen in dem Worte Kopf zum Beispiel das o in einer bestimmten Weise zeichnend empfinde: es ist, die Eurythmiker wissen das, die Rundung, die nach vorn sich auslebt in Nase und Mund. In dem Lautgefüge liegt alles drinnen, wenn man es erleben will, was in der Form des Kopfes gegeben ist. Wenn also einer die Form des Kopfes ausdrücken will, so sagt er annähernd, je nach seiner Kehlkopf- oder Lungenorganisation, K-o-pf. Aber nun können wir sagen: Da im Kopfe sitzt das, was von einem Menschen zum andern spricht, wodurch ein Mensch dem andern die Dinge mitteilt, das Innere der Sache dem andern übergibt, das, was Sie zum Beispiel jemandem übergeben, im Testament haben, kundgeben, aussagen, festsetzen. - Wenn Sie den Kopf als den Festsetzer, den Mitteiler, nicht als den runden Gegenstand, sondern als den, der die Sprache von sich gibt, benennen wollen, dann sagen Sie testa. Sie benennen den Mitteiler, wenn Sie testa sagen; Sie benennen die Rundung, wenn Sie Kopf sagen. Wenn der Italiener würde die Rundung bezeichnen wollen, so würde er auch Kopf sagen, und wenn der Deutsche Mitteiler oder Festsetzer sagen wollte, so würde er auch testa sagen. Aber beide haben sich angewöhnt, etwas anderes in der Sprache zu benennen; denn es gibt gar keine Möglichkeit, die Dinge auf verschiedene Weise auszudrücken. Man sagt daher etwas anderes, wenn man testa oder Kopf sagt. Die Sprachen sind verschieden, weil sie verschiedene Inhalte mit ihren Worten bezeichnen.

Nun versetze man sich ganz hinein in die Art, wie jemand aus seiner Volksindividualität heraus in der Sprache lebt, wie der Deutsche zum Beispiel ganz in der Sprache lebt, indem er plastisch die Sprache bildet. Die deutsche Sprache ist einfach die Sprache für die plastische Anschauung. Das ist in der deutschen Sprache dadurch zum Ausdruck gekommen, daß sie sich bei der Sprachentwickelung über das Griechische herauf nach Mitteleuropa herein entwickelt hat. Wenn Sie die italienische Sprache studieren, so ist sie ganz daraufhin angelegt, sich aus dem Motorisch-Seelischen zu entwickeln, wie die romanischen Sprachen überhaupt. Sie schauen nicht an. Die deutsche Sprache ist eine solche, die aus der Anschauung herausgebildet ist; die italienische hat sich gebildet aus dem inneren Tanzen, dem inneren Singen, aus dem Sich-Mitteilen in der Organisation. Daran sieht man die Art und Weise, wie das Ich in der Volkssubstanz drinnensteht; da lernt man an dem Sprachgefüge, wie das Ich eigentlich wirkt.

Daher ist es schon notwendig, daß sich der Lehrer nicht nur Musikgefühl, sondern inneres Sprachgefühl aneigne - von da ausgehend, daß wir eigentlich in den neueren Sprachen nur noch in den Empfindungslauten Gefühls- und Seelenerlebnisse haben. Wenn wir zum Beispiel im Deutschen sagen «etsch!», so ist das etwas, wie wenn jemand ausgeglitten, hingefallen ist, und wie wenn er ausdrücken wollte das Hinfallen, worüber wir uns lustig machen. In den Empfindungslauten haben wir noch etwas von dem, was in der Sprache gefühlt wird. Sonst ist die Sprache abstrakt geworden, schwebt so über den Dingen, lebt nicht mehr in den Dingen. Aber man muß mit der Sprache wieder in sie hineinkommen. Man muß ringen lernen mit der Sprache, man muß sein Ich durch die Laute durchgehen fühlen. Dann wird man fühlen, wie es etwas anderes ist, ob man Kopf sagt, wobei man, wenn man es fühlt, gleich zeichnen möchte, oder ob man testa sagt, wobei man, wenn man es fühlt, gleich tanzen möchte. Das ist eben dieses SichHineinfühlen in die Lebensbetätigungen, das insbesondere beim Lehrer herauskommen muß.

Kann also der Lehrer sich allmählich immer mehr und mehr dieses Zusammenschauen von Körperlichem und Geistig-Seelischem aneignen — das ja eins ist, wie ich immer wieder betont habe -, dann wird er, ohne daß man versucht wird, in Abstraktionen und in Intellektualistisches überzugehen, Unterricht und Erziehung zwischen Zahnwechsel und Geschlechtsreife im Bildlichen gehalten haben wollen. Denn es ist einem nichts mehr zuwider, als wenn man gewohnt ist, in Bildern Realitäten zu denken, und der andere kommt und redet einem in Intellektualismen herum. Das empfindet man als furchtbar unangenehm. Wenn man zum Beispiel gewohnt ist, eine Lebensszene so zu sehen, wie sie sich abspielt, indem man nur den Drang hat, sich hinzustellen und zu schildern, wobei man ganz im Bilde drinnen ist, und der andere kommt, man möchte sich mit ihm verständigen, er aber beurteilt die Sache nur nach dem Verstande, fängt gleich an: Es war schön, oder: Es war häßlich oder grandios oder wundervoll — wie alle diese Dinge sind, dann fühlt man eigentlich seelisch so, wie wenn er einem die Haare ausrisse. Und insbesondere ist es schlimm, wenn man gerne etwas erfahren möchte, was der andere erlebt hat, und dieser schildert einem nicht, wie die Sache war: Da habe ich einen Menschen kennengelernt, der hebt stark seine Knie auf, wenn er geht, — sondern er fängt an: Dieser Mensch geht schön, oder: Er hat einen schönen Gang. — Aber damit sagt er einem nichts über den andern Menschen, sondern über sein eigenes Ego. Aber das will man gar nicht wissen; man will die Schilderung dessen haben, was sich abgespielt hat. Die Menschen kommen heute immer schwer heraus aus sich zu dem, was da war. Daher schildern sie nicht die Dinge, sondern das, was sie empfunden haben, als schön oder häßlich. Selbst in der Sprache bildet sich so etwas nach und nach heraus und die Dinge werden danach benannt. Statt daß einem die Physiognomie des Gesichtes geschildert wird, wird gesagt: Ja, die blickte mich grausam an — oder so irgend etwas.

Das sind Dinge, die in das innerste Gefüge der Lehrerbildung hineinkommen müßten: von sich loszukommen und an die Sache heranzukommen. Kommt man an die Sache heran, so kommt man auch an das Kind heran. Das Kind empfindet nämlich so, wie ich es geschildert habe, daß man ihm die Haare ausreißt, wenn man ihm nicht von der Sache, sondern von seinen eigenen Empfindungen redet; während es sofort auf alles eingeht, wenn man nur die Sache wiedergibt. Daher ist es von großer Wichtigkeit für den Lehrer, daß er nicht allzuviel — denkt. Ich empfinde es immer als eine große Schwierigkeit bei den Lehrern der Waldorfschule, wenn sie allzuviel denken, dagegen immer als eine große Wohltat, wenn sie die Fähigkeit entwickeln, auch die kleinsten Dinge zu beobachten, zu sehen, ihre Eigentümlichkeiten herauszufinden. Wenn mir jemand sagt: Ich habe heute morgen eine Dame gesehen, die hatte ein violettes Kleid an, das war bis zu einem gewissen Grade ausgeschnitten, sie trug Schuhe mit hohen Absätzen - und so weiter, so ist mir das lieber, als wenn einer kommt und sagt: Der Mensch besteht aus physischem Leib,Ätherleib, Astralleib und Ich, - denn das eine bezeugt, daß er im Leben drinnensteht, daß er den Ätherleib ausgebildet hat in sich, das andere, daß er mit dem Verstande weiß, es gibt einen Ätherleib. Damit ist aber nicht viel getan.

Ich muß mich in dieser Weise drastisch ausdrücken, damit wir das Wichtigste der Lehrerausbildung darin erkennen lernen, daß man nicht viele Dinge ausspintisieren lernt, sondern das Leben beobachten lernt. Daß man es dann anwendet im Leben, das ergibt sich schon von selbst. Durch das Nachdenken, wie man die Beobachtungen anwenden soll, werden sie schon verdorben. Daher hütet sich der, der aus der Geisteswissenschaft heraus schildern will, besonders stark vor dem gebrauchen abstrakter Begriffe; denn dadurch kommt er ab von dem, was er eigentlich sagen will. Und insbesondere prägt sich so ein eigentümliches Auffassen ein, die Dinge zu runden, sie nicht in Eckigkeit zu sagen. — Ein drastisches Beispiel dafür. Mir zum Beispiel ist es unangenehm, zu sagen in gewissen Zusammenhängen: Da steht ein blasser Mensch. Das tut weh. Dagegen fängt es an Wirklichkeit zu atmen, wenn ich sage: Da steht ein Mensch, der blaß ist, — wenn man also nicht in dem starren, einfachen Begriffe, sondern in dem Begriffe, der herumgeht, die Sache charakterisiert. Und man wird finden, daß die Kinder viel mehr Verständnis haben, innerlich, für relative Sachen, als für bloße hauptwörtlich oder eigenschaftswörtlich ausgedrückte Relationen. Die Kinder sind für das sanfte Ergreifen der Dinge. Wenn ich ihnen sage: Da steht ein blasser Mensch, — dann ist es so, wie wenn ich mit einem Hammer haue; sage ich aber: Da steht ein Mensch, der blaß ist, — so streichele ich mit der Hand. Die Kinder haben viel mehr die Möglichkeit, sich anzuschmiegen an die Welt, wenn man ihnen die Dinge in dieser zweiten Form beibringt, also nicht auf die Dinge draufschlägt, sondern wenn man diese Feinheit entwickelt, in der Sprache sich zum Plastiker zu machen für die pädagogische Kunst. Wie auch pädagogische Kunst darin liegt, die Sprache in der Schule soweit zu beherrschen, daß man artikulieren kann, daß man Wichtiges betonen, Unwichtiges fallen lassen kann im Unterrichte.

Gerade auf diese Dinge wird ein großer Wert gelegt und damit auf die Imponderabilien des Unterrichtes immer wieder und wieder in unseren Lehrerkonferenzen hingewiesen. Denn, studiert man wirklich eine Klasse, dann merkt man allerlei Dinge, die einem beim Unterrichte starke Hilfe sein können. Man hat zum Beispiel eine Klasse von 28 Schülern und Schülerinnen. Jetzt will man von irgend etwas, daß es das geistig-seelische Eigentum dieser Schüler und Schülerinnen wird, zum Beispiel ein kleines oder auch ein großes Gedicht. Sie versuchen, dieses Gedicht der Klasse beizubringen. Da werden Sie die Bemerkung machen: Wenn Sie das im Chor sprechen lassen von allen 28 oder auch von einem Drittel oder der Hälfte, so spricht jeder mit und kann es; wenn Sie sich dann irgendeinen Schüler aussuchen, der es allein hersagen soll, so kann er es nicht. Nicht etwa, daß Sie nun den übersehen haben, der da schweigt; sondern beim Chorsprechen kann er es und fällt richtig ein. Denn es ist ein Gruppengeist in der Klasse da, der da wirkt und den man benutzen kann. Wenn man also mit der ganzen Klasse wirklich arbeitet, indem man sie als Chor betrachtet, dann tritt zunächst das ein, daß man schnellere Auffassung hervorrufen kann. Aber ich mußte eines Tages auf die Schattenseite dieser Sache hinweisen, denn ich will Ihnen ja das Geheimnis anvertrauen, daß es auch Schattenseiten in der Waldorfschule gibt. Man kommt so allmählich hinein und findet, das geht ganz gut, die Klasse als Chor zu behandeln im Zusammenwirken. Man benutzt es aber zu stark, man arbeitet mit der Klasse, statt mit dem einzelnen; dann weiß der einzelne zuletzt nichts mehr.

Alle diese Dinge sind durchaus so, daß man ihre Malheure berücksichtigen muß und sich darüber klar sein muß, wie weit man gehen kann, zum Beispiel mit der Chorbehandlung der Klasse, und wie weit man sich mit dem Einzelnen befassen muß. Prinzipien sind da überhaupt nichts nütze. So zu reden: eine Klasse im Chor behandeln ist gut oder solche Prinzipien zu geben: man sollte etwas so oder so machen das ist immer zu nichts nütze, weil man immer, was man auf eine Art machen kann, im komplizierten Leben, wenn die Bedingungen dazu andere sind, auch auf eine andere Weise machen kann. Das Schlimmste daher, was in der pädagogischen Wissenschaft - die gar keine Wissenschaft, sondern eine Kunst ist - auftreten kann, sind eben Definitionen, sind Anleitungen, die einen abstrakten Charakter haben. Pädagogische Anweisungen sollten lediglich darin bestehen, daß man den Lehrer einführt in die individuelle Entwickelung von diesem oder jenem konkreten Menschen, ihn also an den anschaulichsten Beispielen in die Menschenerkenntnis hereinführt.

Durch so etwas ergibt sich dann von selber die Methodik. Nehmen Sie zum Beispiel die Methodik des Geschichtsunterrichtes. Geschichte einem Kinde vor dem 9., 10. Lebensjahre beibringen zu wollen, ist ein ganz unsinniges Unternehmen; denn das Kind hat gar nicht den Weg zum geschichtlichen Werden. Erst mit dem 9., 10. Jahre beginnt es beobachten Sie es nur -, für die einzelnen Menschen sich zu interessieren. Wenn Sie so den Cäsar, so einen Achill, einen Hektor, Agamemnon oder Alkibiades als geschlossene Persönlichkeiten hinstellen und das übrige Geschichtliche nur als Hintergrund auftreten lassen, indem Sie das Ganze so malen, dann hat das Kind das allergrößte Interesse daran. Sogar der Trieb macht sich geltend, immer mehr in dieser Art zu wissen. Das Kind bekommt den Drang, sich in das Biographische der geschichtlichen Persönlichkeiten hineinzuleben, wenn Sie in dieser Weise schildern. Geschlossene Bilder von Persönlichkeiten; geschlossene Bilder, wie eine Mahlzeit in einem bestimmten Jahrhundert ausgesehen hat und wie sie in einem andern Jahrhundert ausgesehen hat; plastisch hinmalen, wie die Leute gegessen haben, als es noch keine Gabeln gegeben hat; plastisch hinmalen, wie man im alten Rom gegessen hat; plastisch hinmalen, wie ein Grieche gegangen ist, der sich bei jedem Schritt bewußt war, was das Bein als Form ist, der die Form fühlte; schildern, wie die Menschen des Alten Testamentes, des hebräischen Volkes, gegangen sind, die gar kein Formgefühl hatten, sondern die die Arme und Beine schlenkern ließen; Gefühle hervorrufen für diese Einzelheiten, die man ins Bild bringen kann: das gibt den Geschichtsunterricht für das 10. bis 12. Lebensjahr.

Dann geht man über in die geschichtlichen Zusammenhänge; denn dann erst wird das Kind empfänglich für den Ursachen- und Wirkungenbegriff. Dann kann man erst zusammenhängende Geschichte darstellen. Aber alles, was in der Geschichte lebt, muß man aus dem Werden herausarbeiten. Sie kommen zum Werden. Stellen Sie sich vor: Wir leben jetzt im Jahre 1924; Karl der Große hat gelebt von 760 bis 814, wenn wir also sagen um 800, so hat er etwa 1120 Jahre hinter uns gelebt. Wenn wir nun als Kind in der Welt stehen, so entwickeln wir uns, und wir rechnen so, daß wir durch ein Jahrhundert hindurch haben können: Sohn oder Tochter, Vater oder Mutter, Großvater, vielleicht auch Urgroßvater, das heißt also 3 bis 4 Generationen in einem Jahrhundert hintereinander. Diese 3 bis 4 Generationen kann man sich so vorstellen, daß der Sohn oder die Tochter dastehen, der Vater oder die Mutter die Arme auf ihre Schultern legen, der Großvater wiederum seine Arme auf die Schultern des Vaters, und ebenso der Urgroßvater seine Arme auf die Schultern des Großvaters. Da sind Sie aber schon ein Jahrhundert zurückgegangen. Wenn Sie sich nun vorstellen, daß Sie so hintereinander Sohn, Vater und Großvater, also die Menschen der Gegenwart aufstellen und dahinter nun die Menschen von 10 weiteren Jahrhunderten in der Generationenfolge, so bekommen Sie zusammen 11mal 3 oder 4 Generationen, also sagen wir 44 Generationen. Wenn Sie so 44 Leute hintereinander stellen, von denen jeder die Hände auf die Schultern des vor ihm Stehenden legt, so kann der vorderste ein Mensch der Gegenwart sein, der hinterste kann Karl der Große sein. So bekommen Sie aus der Hintereinanderstellung der Personen eine Anschauung, wie lange das ist, und Sie sagen jetzt: das geht durch 11 Jahrhunderte. Gehen wir nur durch 3 Jahrhunderte, so brauchen wir nicht 44, sondern nur 10 oder 11 Personen hintereinander zu stellen. Auf diese Weise können Sie das, was so schwer anschaulich ist, nämlich die Zeitverhältnisse in der Geschichte, verwandeln in lauter Raumverhältnisse. Sie können sich vorstellen: Sie haben hier einen Menschen, der mit einem andern spricht; der dreht sich um und kann mit einem folgenden sprechen, dieser ebenso wiederum mit einem folgenden bis Sie dahin kommen, wo es war, als der Petrus mit dem Christus gesprochen hat; dann bekommen Sie die ganze Entwickelung der christlichen Kirche in dem Gespräch der hintereinanderstehenden Leute. Die ganze apostolische Sukzession bekommen Sie heraus, anschaulich hingestellt.

So handelt es sich darum, daß man jedes Mittel ergreifen wird, um ins Bild, in die Anschauung zu kommen. Das ist auch notwendig, weil man dadurch lernt, in die Wirklichkeit hineinzukommen und dadurch wiederum lernt, alles wirklichkeitsgemäß zu gestalten. Denn es ist eigentlich eine Willkür, wenn ich vor dem Kinde 3 Bohnen hinlege, dann wiederum 3 Bohnen, nochmals 3 oder jetzt auch 4, und dann daran die Addition lehre: 3+3+4=10. Das ist ziemlich willkürlich. Aber eine ganz andere Sache ist es, wenn ich ein Häufchen Bohnen habe, von dem ich zunächst noch gar nicht weiß, wieviel es sind. So sind ja die Dinge in der Welt vorhanden. Jetzt teile ich das Häufchen. Das versteht das Kind sofort. Das eine Teil gebe ich dem einen Kinde, das andere einem andern, das dritte einem dritten. Ich teile also den Haufen auf, bringe dem Kinde bei, wieviel der Haufen als solcher umfaßt, die Summe zuerst, dann die Teile hinterher. Zählen kann ich das Kind lassen, weil das hintereinander geschieht, 1, 2, 3 und so weiter bis 12. Jetzt habe ich also die Bohnen aufgeteilt in 4, weitere 4 und nochmals 4; das wird leicht in das Kind eingehen, wenn die Summe zuerst da ist, die Addenden nachher. Das ist wirklichkeitsgemäß. Das andere ist abstrakt, da faßt man zusammen, da ist man intellektualistisch. — So steht man auch mehr in der Wirklichkeit drinnen, wenn man das Kind dazu bringt, daß es die Frage beantworten muß: Wenn ich 12 Apfel habe, jemand nimmt sie, geht auf einen Weg, verliert eine Anzahl und bringt nur 7 zurück; wieviel hat er da verloren? 5. Man geht dabei vom Minuend durch den Rest zum Subtrahend; man zieht nicht ab, sondern geht von dem Rest, also von dem, was durch den wirklichen Vorgang bleibt, zu dem, was da abgezogen ist.

So strebt man überall nicht in die Abstraktheit, sondern in die Wirklichkeit hinein, knüpft an das Leben an, sucht an das Leben heranzukommen. Das ist das, was das Kind auch wiederum lebendig macht, während es zumeist gerade beim Rechenunterricht im ganzen tot bleibt. Die Kinder bleiben ziemlich tot, und das hat ja die Notwendigkeit der Rechenmaschine ergeben. Daß die Rechenmaschine entstanden ist, beweist schon, daß der Rechenunterricht schwer anschaulich zu machen ist. Aber man muß ihn nicht nur anschaulich machen, sondern dem Leben ablesen.

Eighth Lecture

You will have seen the value placed within anthroposophical education on what lies within the consciousness of the teacher: that a complete, self-contained knowledge of human nature truly lives in his consciousness. Now, as you have seen from various examples, today's worldview is not exactly well suited to penetrating deeply into human nature. You will understand what I mean when I explain this in the following way.

We must first distinguish between the physical body, the physical organization, and then the finer, etheric or life body, which contains the formative forces, the forces that live in growth and nutrition, and which then refine themselves in the first years of life and become the powers of memory. Furthermore, however, we must distinguish everything that the plant does not yet have, which also has growth and nutrition and which, in a certain sense, even lives in memory by retaining its form again and again: this next link in humans and animals is the sentient body, the astral body, the carrier of sensations. And then we have the ego organization. We must distinguish these four members of the human being from one another. And by distinguishing them, we gain a real insight into the human being, into its nature, into its development.

The human being first receives, if I may express it this way, its first physical body from heredity. This is prepared for them by their father and mother. This physical body is shed during the first seven years of life, and during this time it serves as a model for the etheric body to build the second body. Today, people make things that exist in reality seem so terribly simple. If a ten-year-old child has a nose similar to his father's, people say it is inherited. But things are not that simple; the nose is only inherited until the teeth change. For if the etheric body is so strong that it rebels against the model of the inherited nose, then the shape of the nose changes during the first seven years. If, on the other hand, the etheric body is weak, it slavishly retains the shape of the nose, and the same shape still appears at the age of 10. Outwardly, it looks as if the concept of heredity still has the same meaning in the second seven years of life as it did in the first seven years; but people today love to say in such cases that the truth must be simple. In reality, things are very complicated. The views that are formed today are mostly formed out of a desire for convenience, not out of a drive for truth.

So it is really a matter of first learning to look into this image-forming body, this etheric body, which gradually works out the second physical body during the first seven years, which in turn is there for seven years. The etheric body is therefore a sculptor, it is a sculptor. And just as a true sculptor does not need a model but works independently, while a poor sculptor does everything according to the model, so in the first period of life after the second period of life, the etheric or formative body works on the second physical body of the human being. We can approach the physical body with our present-day intellectual knowledge; with this we can understand the physical body quite splendidly. And those who do not have intellectuality do not understand it. But that is where our university studies end. For the etheric body cannot be understood with intellectuality, but with pictorial perception. It would be extremely necessary for the teacher to learn to understand the etheric body. You cannot say: We cannot train all our teachers to become clairvoyant and describe the etheric body! But let the teachers in the seminar model instead of the things they often learn there, let them practice sculpture, because when a person really practices sculptural art from the creative nature, they immerse themselves in the inner structure of forms, especially those forms with which the human image-forming body works. For those who have a healthy plastic sense perceive only the animal and human in sculpture, not the plant. Imagine a sculptor who would depict plants in sculptures: one would be overcome with anger! The plant is finished with the physical body and the etheric body; it is indeed finished with them. But the animal overcomes the etheric body with the astral body. The human being even more so. Therefore, we can understand the etheric body in humans when we work our way into the inner structure of forms in nature through sculpture. That is why modeling should above all be a seminar science; then one begins to understand the formative body. One should already have the principle: a teacher who has never learned to model actually understands nothing about the development of the child. The art of education, which seeks to be based on knowledge of human beings, must be cruel enough to draw attention to such things; cruel because such things are demanded, but also cruel because one apparently becomes such a terribly negative critic of everything that is done today. Just as the etheric body works to emerge and become independent with the change of teeth, so the astral body works to become independent with sexual maturity. The etheric body is a sculptor, the astral body a musician. It embodies everything that is musical; it is formed entirely from the musical structure. And what springs forth in human beings from the astral body is entirely musically formed. Anyone who can understand this knows that further seminar training must aim at absorbing the inner musical world view in order to understand human beings. Non-musicians, on the other hand, understand nothing of what is formed in human beings from the astral body, for it is musically formed. If we therefore go into ancient cultures that are still shaped by music, into Oriental cultures that still have something musical even in their language, we find that even architecture is shaped by the musical world view. This changed in Greece, and it changed particularly in the West, because there it entered into the mechanical and mathematical. At the Goetheanum in Dornach, attempts were made to return to this. Musicians also perceived the Goetheanum in Dornach as musical. But today, there is generally little understanding for this.

It is therefore a matter of learning to understand human beings in this way and being able to comprehend anatomy and physiology musically, insofar as it originates from the astral body. Think how closely music is connected with the processes of breathing and circulation. Human beings are musical instruments insofar as they breathe and have a circulatory process. And if you take the relationship between breathing and blood circulation: 18 breaths per minute, 72 heartbeats per minute, gives a ratio of 4:1, individualized in the most diverse ways in human beings, then you will find that human beings have an inner musical structure. 4:1 expresses something that is an inner rhythmic relationship, but which is expressed in the entire human organization, in which humans want to live through their essence. In ancient times, when chanting was to be performed, the line was arranged according to the breath, and the individual metrical foot according to circulation:

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Dactyl — dactyl — caesura — dactyl — dactyl: four in one. Man expresses himself.

But what man then expresses in language, he already expresses beforehand in his form. Anyone who understands humans musically knows that sound has an effect on them. What sits backwards in humans, where the shoulder blades meet, what begins there and shapes the whole human being from there, are the human forms that were constituted from the prime; if we move on to the upper arm, the form changes to the second. And if we move on to the forearm, we arrive at the third. And because there is a major and a minor third — not a major and a minor second — we have one upper arm bone; but we have a major and a minor third, and therefore two forearm bones: the radius and the ulna. The tonal scale is contained in all of this; we are formed according to it. And those who study human beings only externally do not know that human beings are shaped according to the tones. And when we come to the hand, we come to the fourth and then to the fifth. And in free mobility we then come completely out of ourselves; there we grasp the other nature. Hence the peculiar sensation one has with sixths and sevenths, especially when one lives into things in eurythmy. Just think how the style becomes the third, which appears relatively late in musical development; it becomes such that the human being enters into his inner being, which lives in the third; whereas when the human being lives in the seventh, the style becomes such that one has the best possible immersion in the outer world. Self-sacrifice is particularly present in the seventh.

And just as people experience music, they themselves are formed in their forms from music. If the teacher therefore wants to be a good music teacher, if he wants to teach children singing, as has been the case since the beginning of the elementary school era, then he must truly understand that singing emancipates itself; for the astral body used to sing and brought about the forms of human beings. Now the astral body emancipates itself between the change of teeth and sexual maturity. And what emerges from music is what shapes the human being independently. It is no wonder that what is thus permeated by the human being is naturally brought into singing lessons by a music teacher who understands things in this way, and then brought back into instrumental music. Therefore, as early as possible and if the children have a talent for it, we try to introduce the child not only to singing, but also directly to the handling of some musical instrument, so that they have the opportunity to really grasp the musicality that lives in its form when it emancipates itself.

But all these things will be right if the teacher also has the right attitude. If one is clear about this, then every teacher training college should, so to speak, run parallel to medical university, which should first lead to the intellectual understanding that one gains from studying cadavers; then to the plastic understanding that one does not gain unless one later pursues modeling alongside physical and anatomical understanding; then it should lead to musical understanding. For one cannot gain a true understanding of human beings unless one incorporates musical understanding into one's earlier medical studies, as it works in the world; not only externally, but also internally, one must enter into musical understanding in seminar training and apply it in order to see music everywhere. It is everywhere in the world, if only one can find it. But if one wants to understand the ego organization, one must necessarily carry within oneself the inner structure of some language.

So we understand the physical body with the intellect, the etheric body with plastic understanding, the astral body with musical understanding, and the ego organization with a penetrating understanding of language. But today, this is particularly difficult. There is so much we don't know. Today, for example, we look up how a particular language, say German, refers to this thing that sits quietly on top of our body, this round thing with eyes and a nose at the front. In German it is called Kopf, in Italian testa. We look it up in the dictionary and know that the translation of Kopf is testa. But that is only an outward appearance, a superficiality. Because that is not really true. The truth of the matter is that, from the sensation of the vowels and consonants in the word Kopf, for example, I perceive the o in a certain way: it is, as eurythmists know, the rounding that extends forward into the nose and mouth. Everything that is given in the form of the head is contained in the sound structure, if one wants to experience it. So when someone wants to express the form of the head, they say, depending on the organization of their larynx or lungs, something like K-o-pf. But now we can say: what sits in the head is what speaks from one person to another, through which one person communicates things to another, conveys the inner essence of the matter to the other, what you, for example, bequeath to someone in your will, proclaim, declare, establish. If you want to refer to the head as the determiner, the communicator, not as the round object, but as the one that utters speech, then you say testa. You refer to the communicator when you say testa; you refer to the roundness when you say Kopf. If an Italian wanted to refer to the round object, he would also say Kopf, and if a German wanted to refer to the communicator or determiner, he would also say testa. But both have become accustomed to naming something else in their language, because there is no way to express things in different ways. Therefore, one says something else when one says testa or Kopf. Languages are different because they refer to different meanings with their words.

Now let us put ourselves completely in the shoes of someone who lives in language based on their national identity, such as a German who lives completely in language by forming it plastically. The German language is simply the language for plastic perception. This is expressed in the German language by the fact that it developed in Central Europe via Greek. If you study the Italian language, you will see that it is designed to develop from the motor-spiritual, as are all Romance languages. They do not look. The German language is one that has been formed out of perception; Italian has been formed out of inner dancing, inner singing, out of communicating within the organization. From this you can see the way in which the ego stands within the substance of the people; from the structure of the language you learn how the ego actually works.

It is therefore necessary for the teacher to acquire not only a feeling for music, but also an inner feeling for language – based on the fact that in the newer languages we actually only have emotional and spiritual experiences in the sounds of feeling. When we say “etsch!” in German, for example, it is something like when someone has slipped and fallen, and as if they wanted to express the falling, which we make fun of. In the sounds of feeling, we still have something of what is felt in language. Otherwise, language has become abstract, hovering above things, no longer living in them. But one must re-enter them with language. One must learn to wrestle with language, one must feel one's self through the sounds. Then one will feel how it is different whether one says “head,” which makes one want to draw immediately when one feels it, or whether one says “testa,” which makes one want to dance immediately when one feels it. It is precisely this empathy with the activities of life that must come out, especially in the teacher.

If the teacher can gradually acquire more and more of this understanding of the physical and the spiritual-soul aspects — which are one, as I have repeatedly emphasized — then, without being tempted to slip into abstractions and intellectualism, he will want to keep teaching and education between the change of teeth and sexual maturity in the pictorial realm. For there is nothing more repugnant than when one is accustomed to thinking in images and reality, and someone else comes along and talks in intellectual terms. This is perceived as terribly unpleasant. For example, if you are used to seeing a scene from life as it unfolds, with the urge to stand there and describe it, completely immersed in the image, and someone else comes along, you want to communicate with them, but they judge the matter only with their intellect and immediately begin: “It was beautiful,” or " It was ugly or magnificent or wonderful — as all these things are, then you actually feel emotionally as if they were pulling your hair out. And it is particularly bad when you would like to find out something that the other person has experienced, and they don't describe to you how it was: I met a person who lifts their knees high when they walk — but instead they start: This person walks beautifully, or: He has a beautiful gait. — But in doing so, he tells you nothing about the other person, but about his own ego. But that's not what you want to know; you want a description of what happened. Today, people find it difficult to express what was there. That's why they don't describe things, but what they felt, as beautiful or ugly. Even in language, this gradually emerges and things are named accordingly. Instead of describing the physiognomy of the face, people say: Yes, she looked at me cruelly — or something like that.

These are things that should be incorporated into the innermost structure of teacher training: to detach oneself and approach the matter. If you approach the matter, you also approach the child. The child feels, as I have described, that you are pulling their hair out when you talk to them not about the matter but about your own feelings; whereas they immediately respond to everything when you simply describe the matter. It is therefore very important for the teacher not to think too much. I always find it very difficult when Waldorf school teachers think too much, but always a great benefit when they develop the ability to observe even the smallest things, to see them and discover their peculiarities. When someone says to me, “This morning I saw a lady wearing a purple dress that was cut out to a certain degree, she was wearing high-heeled shoes,” and so on, I prefer that to someone coming and saying, Human beings consist of a physical body, an etheric body, an astral body, and an ego, because the one testifies that they are involved in life, that they have developed the etheric body within themselves, and the other that they know with their intellect that there is an etheric body. But that does not accomplish much.

I have to express myself in such drastic terms so that we learn to recognize the most important thing in teacher training, which is not to learn to spin out many things, but to learn to observe life. That one then applies this in life follows naturally. By thinking about how to apply the observations, they are already spoiled. Therefore, those who want to describe things from the perspective of spiritual science are particularly wary of using abstract terms, because this distracts them from what they actually want to say. And in particular, this leads to a peculiar way of thinking, of rounding things off, of not saying them in a blunt manner. — A drastic example of this. For example, I find it unpleasant to say in certain contexts: There stands a pale person. That hurts. On the other hand, it begins to breathe reality when I say: There stands a person who is pale — that is, when one characterizes the thing not in rigid, simple terms, but in terms that go around it. And you will find that children have much more understanding, inwardly, for relative things than for mere relations expressed in nouns or adjectives. Children are receptive to a gentle grasp of things. If I say to them, “There is a pale person standing there,” it is as if I were striking them with a hammer; but if I say, There is a person who is pale, it is as if I were stroking them with my hand. Children have much more opportunity to snuggle up to the world if you teach them things in this second form, that is, not by hitting them over the head with things, but by developing this subtlety, by becoming a sculptor in language for the art of education. Pedagogical art also lies in mastering language in school to such an extent that one can articulate, emphasize what is important, and leave out what is unimportant in teaching.

Great importance is attached to these things in particular, and thus the imponderables of teaching are repeatedly pointed out in our teachers' conferences. Because if you really study a class, you notice all kinds of things that can be a great help in teaching. For example, you have a class of 28 students. Now you want something to become the intellectual and emotional property of these students, for example, a short or even a long poem. You try to teach this poem to the class. You will make the following observation: if you have all 28 students recite it in unison, or even a third or half of them, everyone will recite it and be able to do so; but if you then choose any one student to recite it alone, they will not be able to do so. It is not that you have overlooked the one who remains silent; rather, when reciting in chorus, he can do it and it comes to him correctly. For there is a group spirit in the class that is at work and can be utilized. So when you really work with the whole class, treating them as a chorus, the first thing that happens is that you can bring about a quicker understanding. But one day I had to point out the downside of this, because I want to confide in you that there are also downsides to Waldorf schools. You gradually get into it and find that it works quite well to treat the class as a choir in cooperation. But if you use it too much, if you work with the class instead of with the individual, then in the end the individual knows nothing anymore. All these things are such that one must take their pitfalls into account and be clear about how far one can go, for example, with treating the class as a choir, and how far one must deal with the individual. Principles are of no use at all here. To say that treating a class as a choir is good, or to give principles such as one should do something this way or that way is always useless, because in the complicated life, when the conditions are different, one can always do what one can do in one way in another way. The worst thing that can happen in pedagogical science—which is not a science at all, but an art—are definitions, instructions that have an abstract character. Educational instructions should consist solely of introducing the teacher to the individual development of this or that specific person, thus introducing them to human knowledge using the most vivid examples.

This then leads to the methodology itself. Take, for example, the methodology of teaching history. Trying to teach history to a child under the age of 9 or 10 is a completely nonsensical undertaking, because the child has no way of understanding historical development. It is only at the age of 9 or 10 that they begin to take an interest in individual people. If you present Caesar, Achilles, Hector, Agamemnon, or Alcibiades as complete personalities and let the rest of history appear only as a backdrop, painting the whole picture in this way, then the child will be extremely interested. They will even feel an urge to learn more and more in this way. The child feels the urge to immerse themselves in the biographies of historical personalities when you describe them in this way. Complete pictures of personalities; complete pictures of what a meal looked like in a particular century and what it looked like in another century; vividly painting how people ate when there were no forks; vividly painting how people ate in ancient Rome; vividly painting how a Greek walked, conscious with every step of the form of his leg, feeling the form; describing how the people of the Old Testament, the Hebrew people, walked, who had no sense of form at all, but let their arms and legs swing; Evoke feelings for these details, which can be brought into the picture: this is what history lessons for 10- to 12-year-olds are all about.

Then move on to the historical context, because only then will the child be receptive to the concept of cause and effect. Only then can you present coherent history. But everything that lives in history must be worked out from the process of becoming. They come to be. Imagine: we are now living in the year 1924; Charlemagne lived from 760 to 814, so when we say around 800, he lived about 1120 years before us. When we enter the world as children, we develop, and we calculate that we can have a son or daughter, father or mother, grandfather, perhaps even a great-grandfather, that is, three to four generations in a century. These three to four generations can be imagined as the son or daughter standing there, the father or mother placing their arms on their shoulders, the grandfather in turn placing his arms on the father's shoulders, and likewise the great-grandfather placing his arms on the grandfather's shoulders. But then you have already gone back a century. Now imagine that you line up the son, father, and grandfather, i.e., the people of the present, one behind the other, and behind them the people of 10 more centuries in the generational sequence. Together, you get 11 times 3 or 4 generations, or let's say 44 generations. If you line up 44 people in a row, each of whom places their hands on the shoulders of the person in front of them, the person at the front could be someone from the present day, and the person at the back could be Charlemagne. By lining up the people in a row, you get an idea of how long that is, and you can now say: that spans 11 centuries. If we only go through 3 centuries, we don't need 44 people standing in a row, but only 10 or 11. In this way, you can transform what is so difficult to visualize, namely the temporal relationships in history, into purely spatial relationships. You can imagine: you have a person here who is talking to another; he turns around and can talk to the next person, who in turn can talk to the next, until you get to the point where Peter spoke to Christ; then you get the whole development of the Christian church in the conversation of the people standing in line. You get the whole apostolic succession, presented in a vivid way.

So it is a matter of using every means to get the picture, to get the insight. This is also necessary because it teaches you to get into reality and, in turn, to shape everything in accordance with reality. For it is actually arbitrary if I place three beans in front of the child, then another three beans, then another three or now even four, and then teach addition: 3+3+4=10. That is quite arbitrary. But it is quite another matter if I have a pile of beans, of which I do not yet know how many there are. That's how things are in the world. Now I divide the pile. The child understands this immediately. I give one part to one child, another to another, and the third to a third child. So I divide the pile, teach the child how much the pile contains as such, first the sum, then the parts afterwards. I can let the child count because it happens one after the other, 1, 2, 3 and so on up to 12. So now I have divided the beans into 4, another 4 and another 4; this will be easy for the child to understand if the total is there first and the addends afterwards. That is realistic. The other way is abstract, you summarize, you are intellectual. — You are also more in touch with reality when you get the child to answer the question: If I have 12 apples, someone takes them, goes on a journey, loses some and brings back only 7; how many has he lost? 5. In doing so, one proceeds from the minuend through the remainder to the subtrahend; one does not subtract, but proceeds from the remainder, i.e., from what remains after the actual process, to what has been subtracted.

In this way, one strives not for abstraction, but for reality, connecting with life and seeking to approach it. This is what brings the child to life, whereas in most cases they remain completely dead, especially when it comes to arithmetic lessons. The children remain pretty much dead, and this has led to the need for the calculating machine. The fact that the calculating machine was invented proves that arithmetic lessons are difficult to make vivid. But it is not enough to make them vivid; they must be taken from life.