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The Philosophy of Freedom
The Theory of Freedom
GA 4

VIII. Are There Limits to Knowledge

We have established that the elements for the explanation of reality are to be taken from the two spheres of perception and thought. It is due, as we have seen, to our organization that the full totality of reality, including our own selves as subjects, appears at first as a duality. Knowledge transcends this duality by fusing the two elements of reality, the percept and the concept, into the complete thing. Let us call the manner in which the world presents itself to us, before by means of knowledge it has taken on its true nature, “the world of appearance,” in distinction from the unified whole composed of percept and concept. We can then say, the world is given to us as a duality (Dualism), and knowledge transforms it into a unity (Monism). A philosophy which starts from this basal principle may be called a Monistic philosophy, or Monism. Opposed to this is the theory of two worlds, or Dualism. The latter does not, by any means, assume merely that there are two sides of a single reality, which are kept apart by our organization, but that there are two worlds totally distinct from one another. It then tries to find in one of these two worlds the principle of explanation for the other.

Dualism rests on a false conception of what we call knowledge. It divides the whole of reality into two spheres, each of which has its own laws, and it leaves these two worlds standing outside one another.

It is from a Dualism such as this that there arises the distinction between the object of perception and the thing-in-itself, which Kant introduced into philosophy, and which, to the present day, we have not succeeded in expelling. According to our interpretation, it is due to the nature of our organization that a particular object can be given to us only as a percept. Thought transcends this particularity by assigning to each percept its proper place in the world as a whole. As long as we determine the separate parts of the cosmos as percepts, we are simply following, in this sorting out, a law of our subjective constitution. If, however, we regard all percepts, taken together, merely as one part, and contrast with this a second part, viz., the things-in-themselves, then our philosophy is building castles-in-the-air. We are then engaged in mere playing with concepts. We construct an artificial opposition, but we can find no content for the second of these opposites, seeing that no content for a particular thing can be found except in perception.

>Every kind of reality which is assumed to exist outside the sphere of perception and conception must be relegated to the limbo of unverified hypotheses. To this category belongs the “thing-in-itself.” It is, of course, quite natural that a Dualistic thinker should be unable to find the connection between the world-principle which he hypothetically assumes and the facts that are given in experience. For the hypothetical world-principle itself a content can be found only by borrowing it from experience and shutting one's eyes to the fact of the borrowing. Otherwise it remains an empty and meaningless concept, a mere form without content. In this case the Dualistic thinker generally asserts that the content of this concept is inaccessible to our knowledge. We can know only that such a content exists, but not what it is. In either case it is impossible to transcend Dualism. Even though one were to import a few abstract elements from the world of experience into the content of the thing-in-itself, it would still remain impossible to reduce the rich concrete life of experience to these few elements, which are, after all, themselves taken from experience. Du Bois-Reymond lays it down that the imperceptible atoms of matter produce sensation and feeling by means of their position and motion, and then infers from this premise that we can never find a satisfactory explanation of how matter and motion produce sensation and feeling, for “it is absolutely and for ever unintelligible that it should be other than indifferent to a number of atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen, etc., how they lie and move, how they lay or moved, or how they will lie and will move. It is in no way intelligible how consciousness might come into existence through their interaction.” This conclusion is characteristic of the whole tendency of this school of thought. Position and motion are abstracted from the rich world of percepts. They are then transferred to the fictitious world of atoms. And then we are astonished that we fail to evolve concrete life out of this principle of our own making, which we have borrowed from the world of percepts.

That the Dualist, working as he does with a completely empty concept of the thing-in-itself, can reach no explanation of the world, follows even from the definition of his principle which has been given above.

In any case, the Dualist finds it necessary to set impassable barriers to our faculty of knowledge. A follower of the Monistic theory of the world knows that all he needs to explain any given phenomenon in the world is to be found within this world itself. What prevents him from finding it can be only chance limitations in space and time, or defects of his organization, i.e., not of human organization in general, but only of his own.

It follows from the concept of knowledge, as defined by us, that there can be no talk of any limits of knowledge. Knowledge is not a concern of the universe in general, but one which men must settle for themselves. External things demand no explanation. They exist and act on one another according to laws which thought can discover. They exist in indivisible unity with these laws. But we, in our self-hood, confront them, grasping at first only what we have called percepts. However, within ourselves we find the power to discover also the other part of reality. Only when the Self has combined for itself the two elements of reality which are indivisibly bound up with one another in the world, is our thirst for knowledge stilled. The Self is then again in contact with reality.

The presuppositions for the development of knowledge thus exist through and for the Self. It is the Self which sets itself the problems of knowledge. It takes them from thought, an element which in itself is absolutely clear and transparent. If we set ourselves questions which we cannot answer, it must be because the content of the questions is not in all respects clear and distinct. It is not the world which sets questions to us, but we who set them to ourselves.

I can imagine that it would be quite impossible for me to answer a question which I happened to find written down somewhere, without knowing the universe of discourse from which the content of the question is taken.

In knowledge we are concerned with questions which arise for us through the fact that a world of percepts, conditioned by time, space, and our subjective organization, stands over against a world of concepts expressing the totality of the universe. Our task consists in the assimilation to one another of these two spheres, with both of which we are familiar. There is no room here for talking about limits of knowledge. It may be that, at a particular moment, this or that remains unexplained because, through chance obstacles, we are prevented from perceiving the things involved. What is not found today, however, may easily be found tomorrow. The limits due to these causes are only contingent, and must be overcome by the progress of perception and thought.

Dualism makes the mistake of transferring the opposition of subject and object, which has meaning only within the perceptual world, to pure conceptual entities outside this world. Now the distinct and separate things in the perceptual world remain separated only so long as the perceiver refrains from thinking. For thought cancels all separation and reveals it as due to purely subjective conditions. The Dualist, therefore, transfers to entities transcending the perceptual world abstract determinations which, even in the perceptual world, have no absolute, but only relative, validity. He thus divides the two factors concerned in the process of knowledge, viz., percept and concept, into four: (1) the object in itself; (2) the percept which the subject has of the object; (3) the subject; (4) the concept which relates the percept to the object in itself. The relation between subject and object is “real”; the subject is really (dynamically) influenced by the object. This real process does not appear in consciousness. But it evokes in the subject a response to the stimulation from the object. The result of this response is the percept. This, at length, appears in consciousness. The object has an objective (independent of the subject) reality, the percept a subjective reality. This subjective reality is referred by the subject to the object. This reference is an ideal one. Dualism thus divides the process of knowledge into two parts. The one part, viz., the production of the perceptual object by the thing-in-itself, he conceives of as taking place outside consciousness, whereas the other, the combination of percept with concept and the latter's reference to the thing-in-itself, takes place, according to him, in consciousness.

With such presuppositions, it is clear why the Dualist regards his concepts merely as subjective representations of what is really external to his consciousness. The objectively real process in the subject by means of which the percept is produced, and still more the objective relations between things-in-themselves, remain for the Dualist inaccessible to direct knowledge. According to him, man can get only conceptual representations of the objectively real. The bond of unity which connects things-in-themselves with one another, and also objectively with the individual minds (as things-in-themselves) of each of us, exists beyond our consciousness in a Divine Being of whom, once more, we have merely a conceptual representation.

The Dualist believes that the whole world would be dissolved into a mere abstract scheme of concepts, did he not posit the existence of real connections beside the conceptual ones. In other words, the ideal principles which thinking discovers are too airy for the Dualist, and he seeks, in addition, real principles with which to support them.

Let us examine these real principles a little more closely. The naïve man (Naïve Realist) regards the objects of sense-experience as realities. The fact that his hands can grasp, and his eyes see, these objects is for him sufficient guarantee of their reality. “Nothing exists that cannot be perceived” is, in fact, the first axiom of the naïve man; and it is held to be equally valid in its converse: “Everything which is perceived exists.” The best proof for this assertion is the naïve man's belief in immortality and in ghosts. He thinks of the soul as a fine kind of matter perceptible by the senses which, in special circumstances, may actually become visible to the ordinary man (belief in ghosts).

In contrast with this, his real, world, the Naïve Realist regards everything else, especially the world of ideas, as unreal, or “merely ideal.” What we add to objects by thinking is merely thoughts about the objects. Thought adds nothing real to the percept.

But it is not only with reference to the existence of things that the naïve man regards perception as the sole guarantee of reality, but also with reference to the existence of processes. A thing, according to him, can act on another only when a force actually present to perception issues from the one and acts upon the other. The ancient Greek philosophers, who were Naïve Realists in the best sense of the word, held a theory of vision according to which the eye sends out feelers which touch the objects. The older physicists thought that very fine kinds of substances emanate from the objects and penetrate through the sense-organs into the soul. The actual perception of these substances is impossible only because of the coarseness of our sense-organs relatively to the fineness of these substances. In principle the reason for attributing reality to these substances was the same as that for attributing it to the objects of the sensible world, viz., their kind of existence, which was conceived to be analogous to that of perceptual reality.

The self-contained being of ideas is not thought of by the naïve mind as real in the same sense. An object conceived “merely in idea” is regarded as a chimera until sense-perception can furnish proof of its reality. In short, the naïve man demands, in addition to the ideal evidence of his thinking, the real evidence of his senses. In this need of the naïve man lies the ground for the origin of the belief in revelation. The God whom we apprehend by thought remains always merely our idea of God. The naïve consciousness demands that God should manifest Himself in ways accessible to the senses. God must appear in the flesh, and must attest his Godhead to our senses by the changing of water into wine.

Even knowledge itself is conceived by the naïve mind as a process analogous to sense-perception. Things, it is thought, make an impression on the mind, or send out copies of themselves which enter through our senses, etc.

What the naïve man can perceive with his senses he regards as real, and what he cannot perceive (God, soul, knowledge, etc.) he regards as analogous to what he can perceive.

On the basis of Naïve Realism, science can consist only in an exact description of the content of perception. Concepts are only means to this end. They exist to provide ideal counterparts of percepts. With the things themselves they have nothing to do. For the Naïve Realist only the individual tulips, which we can see, are real. The universal idea of tulip is to him an abstraction, the unreal thought-picture which the mind constructs for itself out of the characteristics common to all tulips.

Naïve Realism, with its fundamental principle of the reality of all percepts, contradicts experience, which teaches us that the content of percepts is of a transitory nature. The tulip I see is real today; in a year it will have vanished into nothingness. What persists is the species “tulip.” This species is, however, for the Naïve Realist merely an idea, not a reality. Thus this theory of the world finds itself in the paradoxical position of seeing its realities arise and perish, while that which, by contrast with its realities, it regards as unreal endures. Hence Naïve Realism is compelled to acknowledge the existence of something ideal by the side of percepts. It must include within itself entities which cannot be perceived by the senses. In admitting them it escapes contradicting itself by conceiving their existence as analogous to that of objects of sense. Such hypothetical realities are the invisible forces by means of which the objects of sense-perception act on one another. Another such reality is heredity, the effects of which survive the individual, and which is the reason why from the individual a new being develops which is similar to it, and by means of which the species is maintained. The soul, the life-principle permeating the organic body, is another such reality which the naïve mind is always found conceiving in analogy to realities of sense-perception. And, lastly, the Divine Being, as conceived by the naïve mind, is such a hypothetical entity. The Deity is thought of as acting in a manner exactly corresponding to that which we can perceive in man himself, i.e., the Deity is conceived anthropomorphically.

Modern Physics traces sensations back to the movements of the smallest particles of bodies and of an infinitely fine substance called ether. What we experience, e.g., as warmth is a movement of the parts of a body which causes the warmth in the space occupied by that body. Here again something imperceptible is conceived on the analogy of what is perceptible. Thus, in terms of perception, the analogon to the concept “body” is, say, the interior of a room, shut in on all sides, in which elastic balls are moving in all directions, impinging one on another, bouncing on and off the walls, etc.

Without such assumptions the world of the Naïve Realist would collapse into a disconnected chaos of percepts, without mutual relations, and having no unity within itself. It is clear, however, that Naïve Realism can make these assumptions only by contradicting itself. If it would remain true to its fundamental principle, that only what is perceived is real, then it ought not to assume a reality where it perceives nothing. The imperceptible forces of which perceptible things are the bearers are, in fact, illegitimate hypotheses from the standpoint of Naïve Realism. But because Naïve Realism knows no other realities, it invests its hypothetical forces with perceptual content. It thus transfers a form of existence (the existence of percepts) to a sphere where the only means of making any assertion concerning such existence, viz., sense-perception, is lacking.

This self-contradictory theory leads to Metaphysical Realism. The latter constructs, beside the perceptible reality, an imperceptible one which it conceives on the analogy of the former. Metaphysical Realism is, therefore, of necessity Dualistic.

Wherever the Metaphysical Realist observes a relation between perceptible things (mutual approach through movement, the entrance of an object into consciousness, etc.), there he posits a reality. However, the relation of which he becomes aware cannot be perceived but only expressed by means of thought. The ideal relation is thereupon arbitrarily assimilated to something perceptible. Thus, according to this theory the world is composed of the objects of perception which are in ceaseless flux, arising and disappearing, and of imperceptible forces by which the perceptible objects are produced, and which are permanent.

Metaphysical Realism is a self-contradictory mixture of Naïve Realism and Idealism. Its forces are imperceptible entities endowed with the qualities proper to percepts. The Metaphysical Realist has made up his mind to acknowledge, in addition to the sphere for the existence of which he has an instrument of knowledge in sense-perception, the existence of another sphere for which this instrument fails, and which can be known only by means of thought. But he cannot make up his mind at the same time to acknowledge that the mode of existence which thought reveals, viz., the concept (or idea), has equal rights with percepts. If we are to avoid the contradiction of imperceptible percepts, we must admit that, for us, the relations which thought traces between percepts can have no other mode of existence than that of concepts. If one rejects the untenable part of Metaphysical Realism, there remains the concept of the world as the aggregate of percepts and their conceptual (ideal) relations. Metaphysical Realism, then, merges itself in a view of the world according to which the principle of perceptibility holds for percepts, and that of conceivability for the relations between the percepts. This view of the world has no room, in addition to the perceptual and conceptual worlds, for a third sphere in which both principles, the so-called “real” principle and the “ideal” principle, are simultaneously valid.

When the Metaphysical Realist asserts that, besides the ideal relation between the perceived object and the perceiving subject, there must be a real relation between the percept as “thing-in-itself” and the subject as “thing-in-itself” (the so-called individual mind), he is basing his assertion on the false assumption of a real process, imperceptible but analogous to processes in the world of percepts. Further, when the Metaphysical Realist asserts that we stand in a conscious ideal relation to our world of percepts, but that to the real world we can have only a dynamic (force) relation, he repeats the mistake we have already criticized. We can talk of a dynamic relation only within the world of percepts (in the sphere of the sense of touch), but not outside that world.

Let us call the view which we have just characterized, and into which Metaphysical Realism merges when it discards its contradictory elements, Monism, because it combines one-sided Realism and Idealism into a higher unity.

For Naïve Realism the real world is an aggregate of percepts; for Metaphysical Realism, reality belongs not only to percepts but also to imperceptible forces; Monism replaces forces by ideal relations which are supplied by thought. These relations are the laws of nature. A law of nature is nothing but the conceptual expression for the connection of certain percepts.

Monism is never called upon to ask whether there are any principles of explanation for reality other than percepts and concepts. The Monist knows that in the whole realm of the real there is no occasion for this question. In the perceptual world, as immediately apprehended, he sees one-half of reality; in the union of this world with the world of concepts he finds full reality. The Metaphysical Realist might object that, relatively to our organization, our knowledge may be complete in itself, that no part may be lacking, but that we do not know how the world appears to a mind organized differently from our own. To this the Monist will reply: Maybe there are intelligences other than human; and maybe also that their percepts are different from ours, if they have perception at all. But this is irrelevant to me for the following reasons. Through my perceptions, i.e., through this specifically human mode of perception, I, as subject, am confronted with the object. The nexus of things is thereby broken. The subject reconstructs the nexus by means of thought. In doing so it re-inserts itself into the context of the world as a whole. As it is only through the Self, as subject, that the whole appears rent in two between percept and concept, the reunion of those two factors will give us complete knowledge. For beings with a different perceptual world (e.g., if they had twice our number of sense-organs) the nexus would appear broken in another place, and the reconstruction would accordingly have to take a form specifically adapted to such beings. The question concerning the limits of knowledge troubles only Naïve and Metaphysical Realism, both of which see in the contents of mind only ideal representations of the real world. For to these theories whatever falls outside the subject is something absolute, a self-contained whole, and the subject's mental content is a copy which is wholly external to this absolute. The completeness of knowledge depends on the greater or lesser degree of resemblance between the representation and the absolute object. A being with fewer senses than man will perceive less of the world, one with more senses will perceive more. The former's knowledge will, therefore, be less complete than the latter's.

For Monism the matter is different. The point where the unity of the world appears to be rent asunder into subject and object depends on the organization of the percipient. The object is not absolute but merely relative to the nature of the subject. The bridging of the gap, therefore, can take place only in the quite specific way which is characteristic of the human subject. As soon as the Self, which in perception is set over against the world, is again re-inserted into the world-nexus by constructive thought all further questioning ceases, having been but a result of the separation.

A differently constituted being would have a differently constituted knowledge. Our own knowledge suffices to answer the questions which result from our own mental constitution.

Metaphysical Realism must ask, What is it that gives us our percepts? What is it that stimulates the subject?

Monism holds that percepts are determined by the subject. But in thought the subject has, at the same time, the instrument for transcending this determination of which it is itself the author.

The Metaphysical Realist is faced by a further difficulty when he seeks to explain the similarity of the world-views of different human individuals. He has to ask himself, How is it that my theory of the world, built up out of subjectively determined percepts and out of concepts, turns out to be the same as that which another individual is also building up out of these same two subjective factors? How, in any case, is it possible for me to argue from my own subjective view of the world to that of another human being? The Metaphysical Realist thinks he can infer the similarity of the subjective world-views of different human beings from their ability to get on with one another in practical life. From this similarity of world-views he infers further the likeness to one another of individual minds, meaning by “individual mind” the “I-in-itself” underlying each subject.

We have here an inference from a number of effects to the character of the underlying causes. We believe that after we have observed a sufficiently large number of instances, we know the connection sufficiently to know how the inferred causes will act in other instances. Such an inference is called an inductive inference. We shall be obliged to modify its results, if further observation yields some unexpected fact, because the character of our conclusion is, after all, determined only by the particular details of our actual observations. The Metaphysical Realist asserts that this knowledge of causes, though restricted by these conditions, is quite sufficient for practical life.

Inductive inference is the fundamental method of modern Metaphysical Realism. At one time it was thought that out of concepts we could evolve something that would no longer be a concept. It was thought that the metaphysical reals, which Metaphysical Realism after all requires, could be known by means of concepts. This method of philosophizing is now out of date. Instead it is thought that from a sufficiently large number of perceptual facts we can infer the character of the thing-in-itself which lies behind these facts. Formerly it was from concepts, now it is from percepts that the Realist seeks to evolve the metaphysically real. Because concepts are before the mind in transparent clearness, it was thought that we might deduce from them the metaphysically real with absolute certainty. Percepts are not given with the same transparent clearness. Each fresh one is a little different from others of the same kind which preceded it. In principle, therefore, anything inferred from past experience is somewhat modified by each subsequent experience. The character of the metaphysically real thus obtained can therefore be only relatively true, for it is open to correction by further instances. The character of Von Hartmann's Metaphysics depends on this methodological principle. The motto on the title-page of his first important book is, “Speculative results gained by the inductive method of Science.”

The form which the Metaphysical Realist at the present day gives to his things-in-themselves is obtained by inductive inferences. Consideration of the process of knowledge has convinced him of the existence of an objectively-real world-nexus, over and above the subjective world which we know by means of percepts and concepts. The nature of this reality he thinks he can determine by inductive inferences from his percepts.

VII. Gibt es Grenzen des Erkennens?

[ 1 ] Wir haben festgestellt, daß die Elemente zur Erklärung der Wirklichkeit den beiden Sphären: dem Wahrnehmen und dem Denken zu entnehmen sind. Unsere Organisation bedingt es, wie wir gesehen haben, daß uns die volle, totale Wirklichkeit, einschließlich unseres eigenen Subjektes, zunächst als Zweiheit erscheint. Das Erkennen überwindet diese Zweiheit, indem es aus den beiden Elementen der Wirklichkeit: derWahrnehmung und dem durch das Denken erarbeiteten Begriff das ganze Ding zusammenfügt. Nennen wir die Weise, in der uns die Welt entgegentritt, bevor sie durch das Erkennen ihre rechte Gestalt gewonnen hat, die Welt der Erscheinung im Gegensatz zu der aus Wahrnehmung und Begriff einheitlich zusammengesetzten Wesenheit. Dann können wir sagen: Die Welt ist uns als Zweiheit (dualistisch) gegeben, und das Erkennen verarbeitet sie zur Einheit (monistisch). Eine Philosophie, welche von diesem Grundprinzip ausgeht, kann als monistische Philosophie oder Monismus bezeichnet werden. Ihr steht gegenüber die Zweiweltentheorie oder der Dualismus. Der letztere nimmt nicht etwa zwei bloß durch unsere Organisation auseinandergehaltene Seiten der einheitlichen Wirklichkeit an, sondern zwei voneinander absolut verschiedene Welten. Er sucht dann Erklärungsprinzipien für die eine Welt in der andern.

[ 2 ] Der Dualismus beruht auf einer falschen Auffassung des sen, was wir Erkenntnis nennen. Er trennt das gesamte Sein in zwei Gebiete, von denen jedes seine eigenen Gesetze hat, und läßt diese Gebiete einander äußerlich gegenüberstehen

[ 3 ] Einem solchen Dualismus entspringt die durch Kant in die Wissenschaft eingeführte und bis heute nicht wieder herausgebrachte Unterscheidung vonWahrnehmungsobjekt und «Ding an sich». Unseren Ausführungen gemäß liegt es in der Natur unserer geistigen Organisation, daß ein besonderes Ding, nur als Wahrnehmung gegeben sein kann. Das Denken überwindet dann die Besonderung, indem es jeder Wahrnehmung ihre gesetzmäßige Stelle im Weltganzen anweist. Solange die gesonderten Teile des Weltganzen als Wahrnehmungen bestimmt werden, folgen wir einfach in der Aussonderung einem Gesetze unserer Subjektivität. Betrachten wir aber die Summe aller Wahrnehmungen als den einen Teil und stellen diesem dann einen zweiten in den «Dingen an sich» gegenüber, so philosophieren wir ins Blaue hinein. Wir haben es dann mit einem bloßen Begriffsspiel zu tun. Wir konstruieren einen künstlichen Gegensatz, können aber für das zweite Glied desselben keinen Inhalt gewinnen, denn ein solcher kann für ein besonderes Ding nur aus der Wahrnehmung geschöpft werden.

[ 4 ] Jede Art des Seins, das außerhalb des Gebietes von Wahrnehmung und Begriff angenommen wird, ist in die Sphäre der unberechtigten Hypothesen zu verweisen. In diese Kategorie gehört das «Ding an sich». Es ist nur ganz natürlich, daß der dualistische Denker den Zusammenhang des hypothetisch angenommenen Weltprinzipes und des erfahrungsmäßig Gegebenen nicht finden kann. Für das hypothetische Weltprinzip läßt sich nur ein Inhalt gewinnen, wenn man ihn aus der Erfahrungswelt entlehnt und sich über diese Tatsache hinwegtäuscht. Sonst bleibt es ein inhaltsleerer Begriff, ein Unbegriff, der nur die Form des Begriffes hat. Der dualistische Denker behauptet dann gewöhnlich: der Inhalt dieses Begriffes sei unserer Erkenntnis unzugänglich; wir könnten nur wissen, daß ein solcher Inhalt vorhanden ist, nicht was vorhanden ist. In beiden Fällen ist die Überwindung des Dualismus unmöglich. Bringt man ein paar abstrakte Elemente der Erfahrungswelt in den Begriff des Dinges an sich hinein, dann bleibt es doch unmöglich, das reiche konkrete Leben der Erfahrung auf ein paar Eigenschaften zurückzuführen, die selbst nur aus dieser Wahrnehmung entnommen sind. Du Bois-Reymond denkt, daß die unwahrnehmbaren Atome der Materie durch ihre Lage und Bewegung Empfindung und Gefühl erzeugen, um dann zu dem Schlusse zu kommen: Wir können niemals zu einer befriedigenden Erklärung darüber kommen, wie Materie und Bewegung Empfindung und Gefühl erzeugen, denn «es ist eben durchaus und für immer unbegreiflich, daß es einer Anzahl von Kohlenstoff, Wasserstoff, Stickstoff, Sauerstoff, usw. Atomen nicht sollte gleichgültig sein, wie sie liegen und sich bewegen, wie sie lagen und sich bewegten, wie sie liegen und sich bewegen werden. Es ist in keiner Weise einzusehen, wie aus ihrem Zusammenwirken Bewußtsein entstehen könne». Diese Schlußfolgerung ist charakteristisch für die ganze Denkrichtung. Aus der reichen Welt der Wahrnehmungen wird abgesondert: Lage und Bewegung. Diese werden auf die erdachte Welt der Atome übertragen. Dann tritt die Verwunderung darüber ein, daß man aus diesem selbstgemachten und aus der Wahrnehmungswelt entlehnten Prinzip das konkrete Leben nicht herauswickeln kann.

[ 5 ] Daß der Dualist, der mit einem vollständig inhaltleeren Begriff vom An-sich arbeitet, zu keiner Welterklärung kommen kann, folgt schon aus der oben angegebenen Definition seines Prinzipes.

[ 6 ] In jedem Falle sieht sich der Dualist gezwungen, unserem Erkenntnisvermögen unübersteigliche Schranken zu setzen. Der Anhänger einer monistischen Weltanschauung weiß, daß alles, was er zur Erklärung einer ihm gegebenen Erscheinung der Welt braucht, im Bereiche der letztem liegen müsse. Was ihn hindert, dazu zu gelangen, können nur zufällige zeitliche oder räumliche Schranken oder Mängel seiner Organisation sein. Und zwar nicht der menschlichen Organisation im allgemeinen, sondern nur seiner besonderen individuellen.

[ 7 ] Es folgt aus dem Begriffe des Erkennens, wie wir ihn bestimmt haben, daß von Erkenntnisgrenzen nicht gesprochen werden kann. Das Erkennen ist keine allgemeine Weltangelegenheit, sondern ein Geschäft, das der Mensch mit sich selbst abzumachen hat. Die Dinge verlangen keine Erklärung. Sie existieren und wirken aufeinander nach den Gesetzen, die durch das Denken auffindbar sind. Sie existieren in unzertrennlicher Einheit mit diesen Gesetzen. Da tritt ihnen unsere Ichheit gegenüber und erfaßt von ihnen zunächst nur das, was wir als Wahrnehmung bezeichnet haben. Aber in dem Innern dieser Ichheit findet sich die Kraft, um auch den andern Teil der Wirklichkeit zu finden. Erst wenn die Ichheit die beiden Elemente der Wirklichkeit, die in der Welt unzertrennlich verbunden sind, auch für sich vereinigt hat, dann ist die Erkenntnisbefriedigung eingetreten: das Ich ist wieder bei der Wirklichkeit angelangt.

[ 8 ] Die Vorbedingungen zum Entstehen des Erkennens sind also durch und für das Ich. Das letztere gibt sich selbst die Fragen des Erkennens auf. Und zwar entnimmt es sie aus dem in sich vollständig klaren und durchsichtigen Elemente des Denkens. Stellen wir uns Fragen, die wir nicht beantworten können, so kann der Inhalt der Frage nicht in allen seinen Teilen klar und deutlich sein. Nicht die Welt stellt an uns die Fragen, sondern wir selbst stellen sie.

[ 9 ] Ich kann mir denken, daß mir jede Möglichkeit fehlt, eine Frage zu beantworten, die ich irgendwo aufgeschrieben finde, ohne daß ich die Sphäre kenne, aus der der Inhalt der Frage genommen ist.

[ 10 ] Bei unserer Erkenntnis handelt es sich um Fragen, die uns dadurch aufgegeben werden, daß einer durch Ort, Zeit und subjektive Organisation bedingten Wahrnehmungssphäre eine auf die Allheit der Welt weisende Begriffssphäre gegenübersteht. Meine Aufgabe besteht in dem Ausgleich dieser beiden mir wohlbekannten Sphären. Von einer Grenze der Erkenntnis kann da nicht gesprochen werden. Es kann zu irgendeiner Zeit dieses oder jenes unaufgeklärt bleiben, weil wir durch den Lebensschauplatz verhindert sind, die Dinge wahrzunehmen, die dabei im Spiele sind. Was aber heute nicht gefunden ist, kann es morgen werden. Die hierdurch bedingten Schranken sind nur vergängliche, die mit dem Fortschreiten von Wahrnehmung und Denken überwunden werden können.

[ 11 ] Der Dualismus begeht den Fehler, daß er den Gegensatz von Objekt und Subjekt, der nur innerhalb des Wahrnehmungsgebietes eine Bedeutung hat, auf rein erdachte Wesenheiten außerhalb desselben überträgt. Da aber die innerhalb des Wahrnehmungshorizontes gesonderten Dinge nur solange gesondert sind, als der Wahrnehmende sich des Denkens enthält, das alle Sonderung aufhebt und als eine bloß subjektiv bedingte erkennen läßt, so überträgt der Dualist Bestimmungen auf Wesenheiten hinter den Wahrnehmungen, die selbst für diese keine absolute, sondern nur eine relative Geltung haben. Er zerlegt dadurch die zwei für den Erkenntnisprozeß in Betracht kommenden Faktoren, Wahrnehmung und Begriff, in vier: 1. Das Objekt an sich; 2. die Wahrnehmung, die das Subjekt von dem Objekt hat; 3. das Subjekt; 4. den Begriff, der die Wahrnehmung auf das Objekt an sich bezieht. Die Beziehung zwischen dem Objekt und Subjekt ist eine reale; das Subjekt wird wirklich (dynamisch) durch das Objekt beeinflußt. Dieser reale Prozeß soll nicht in unser Bewußtsein fallen. Aber er soll im Subjekt eine Gegenwirkung auf die vom Objekt ausgehende Wirkung hervorrufen. Das Resultat dieser Gegenwirkung soll die Wahrnehmung sein. Diese falle erst ins Bewußtsein. Das Objekt habe eine objektive (vom Subjekt unabhängige), die Wahrnehmung eine subjektive Realität. Diese subjektive Realität beziehe das Subjekt auf das Objekt. Die letztere Beziehung sei eine ideelle. Der Dualismus spaltet somit den Erkenntnisprozeß in zwei Teile. Den einen, Erzeugung des Wahrnehmungsobjektes aus dem «Ding an sich», läßt er außerhalb, den andern, Verbindung der Wahrnehmung mit dem Begriff und Beziehung desselben auf das Objekt, innerhalb des Bewußtseins sich abspielen. Unter diesen Voraussetzungen ist es klar, daß der Dualist in seinen Begriffen nur subjektive Repräsentanten dessen zu gewinnen glaubt, was vor seinem Bewußtsein liegt. Der objektiv-realeVorgang im Subjekte, durch den die Wahrnehmung zustande kommt, und um so mehr die objektiven Beziehungen der «Dinge an sich» bleiben für einen solchen Dualisten direkt unerkennbar; seiner Meinung nach kann sich der Mensch nur begriffliche Repräsentanten für das objektiv Reale verschaffen. Das Einheitsband der Dinge, das diese unter sich und objektiv mit unserem Individualgeist (als «Ding an sich») verbindet, liegt jenseits des Bewußtseins in einem Wesen an sich, von dem wir in unserem Bewußtsein ebenfalls nur einen begrifflichen Repräsentanten haben könnten.

[ 12 ] Der Dualismus glaubt die ganze Welt zu einem abstrakten Begriffsschema zu verflüchtigen, wenn er nicht neben den begrifflichen Zusammenhängen der Gegenstände noch reale Zusammenhänge statuiert. Mit andern Worten: dem Dualisten erscheinen die durch das Denken auffindbaren Idealprinzipien zu luftig, und er sucht noch Realprinzipien, von denen sie gestützt werden können.

[ 13 ] Wir wollen uns diese Realprinzipien einmal näher anschauen. Der naive Mensch (naive Realist) betrachtet die Gegenstände der äußeren Erfahrung als Realitäten. Der Umstand, daß er diese Dinge mit seinen Händen greifen, mit seinen Augen sehen kann, gilt ihm als Zeugnis der Realität. «Nichts existiert, was man nicht wahrnehmen kann», ist geradezu als das erste Axiom des naiven Menschen anzusehen, das ebensogut in seiner Umkehrung anerkannt wird: «Alles, was wahrgenommen werden kann, existiert.» Der beste Beweis für diese Behauptung ist der Unsterblichkeits, und Geisterglaube des naiven Menschen. Er stellt sich die Seele als feine sinnliche Materie vor, die unter besonderen Bedingungen sogar für den gewöhnlichen Menschen sichtbar werden kann (naiver Gespensterglaube).

[ 14 ] Dieser seiner realen Welt gegenüber ist für den naiven Realisten alles andere, namentlich die Welt der Ideen, unreal, «bloß ideell». Was wir zu den Gegenständen hinzu-denken, das ist bloßer Gedanke über die Dinge. Der Gedanke fügt nichts Reales zu der Wahrnehmung hinzu.

[ 15 ] Aber nicht nur in bezug auf das Sein der Dinge hält der naive Mensch die Sinneswahrnehmung für das einzige Zeugnis der Realität, sondern auch in bezug auf das Geschehen. Ein Ding kann, nach seiner Ansicht, nur dann auf ein anderes wirken, wenn eine für die Sinneswahrnehmung vorhandene Kraft von dem einen ausgeht und das andere ergreift. Die ältere Physik glaubte, daß sehr feine Stoffe von den Körpern ausströmen und durch unsere Sinnesorgane in die Seele eindringen. Das wirkliche Sehen dieser Stoffe ist nur durch die Grobheit unserer Sinne im Verhältnis zu der Feinheit dieser Stoffe unmöglich. Prinzipiell gestand man diesen Stoffen aus demselben Grunde Realität zu, warum man es den Gegenständen der Sinnenwelt zugesteht, nämlich wegen ihrer Seinsform, die derjenigen der sinnenfälligen Realität analog gedacht wurde.

[ 16 ] Die in sich beruhende Wesenheit des ideell Erlebbaren gilt dem naiven Bewußtsein nicht in gleichem Sinne als real wie das sinnlich Erlebbare. Ein in der «bloßen Idee» gefaßter Gegenstand gilt so lange als bloße Schimäre, bis durch die Sinneswahrnehmung die Überzeugung von der Realität geliefert werden kann. Der naive Mensch verlangt, um es kurz zu sagen, zum ideellen Zeugnis seines Denkens noch das reale der Sinne. In diesem Bedürfnisse des naiven Menschen liegt der Grund zur Entstehung der primitiven Formen des Offenbarungsglaubens. Der Gott, der durch das Denken gegeben ist, bleibt dem naiven Bewußtsein immer nur ein «gedachter» Gott. Das naive Bewußtsein verlangt die Kundgebung durch Mittel, die der sinnlichen Wahrnehmung zugänglich sind. Der Gott muß leibhaftig erscheinen, und man will auf das Zeugnis des Denkens wenig geben, nur etwa darauf, daß die Göttlichkeit durch sinnenfällig konstatierbares Verwandeln von Wasser in Wein erwiesen wird.

[ 17 ] Auch das Erkennen selbst stellt sich der naive Mensch als einen den Sinnesprozessen analogen Vorgang vor. Die Dinge machen einen Eindruck in der Seele, oder sie senden Bilder aus, die durch die Sinne eindringen und so weiter.

[ 18 ] Dasjenige, was der naive Mensch mit den Sinnen wahrnehmen kann, das hält er für wirklich, und dasjenige, wovon er keine solche Wahrnehmung hat (Gott, Seele, das Erkennen usw.), das stellt er sich analog dem Wahrgenommenen vor.

[ 19 ] Will der naive Realismus eine Wissenschaft begründen, so kann er eine solche nur in einer genauen Beschreibung des Wahrnehmungsinhaltes sehen. Die Begriffe sind ihm nur Mittel zum Zweck. Sie sind da, um ideelle Gegenbilder für die Wahrnehmungen zu schaffen. Für die Dinge selbst bedeuten sie nichts. Als real gelten dem naiven Realisten nur die Tulpenindividuen, die gesehen werden, oder gesehen werden können; die eine Idee der Tulpe gilt ihm als Abstraktum, als das unreale Gedankenbild, das sich die Seele aus den allen Tulpen gemeinsamen Merkmalen zusammengefügt hat.

[ 20 ] Den naiven Realismus mit seinem Grundsatz von der Wirklichkeit alles Wahrgenommenen widerlegt die Erfahrung, welche lehrt, daß der Inhalt der Wahrnehmungen vergänglicher Natur ist. Die Tulpe, die ich sehe, ist heute wirklich; nach einem Jahr wird sie in Nichts verschwunden sein. Was sich behauptet hat, ist die Gattung Tulpe. Diese Gattung ist aber für den naiven Realismus «nur» eine Idee, keine Wirklichkeit. So sieht sich denn diese Weltanschauung in der Lage, ihre Wirklichkeiten kommen und verschwinden zu sehen, während sich das nach ihrer Meinung Unwirkliche dem Wirklichen gegenüber behauptet. Der naive Realismus muß also neben den Wahrnehmungen auch noch etwas Ideelles gelten lassen. Er muß Wesenheiten in sich aufnehmen, die er nicht mit den Sinnen wahrnehmen kann. Er findet sich dadurch mit sich selbst ab, daß er deren Daseinsform analog mit derjenigen der Sinnesobjekte denkt. Solche hypothetisch angenommenen Realitäten sind die unsichtbaren Kräfte, durch die die sinnlich wahrzunehmenden Dinge aufeinander wirken. Ein solches Ding ist die Vererbung, die über das Individuum hinaus fortwirkt, und die der Grund ist, daß sich aus dem Individuum ein neues entwickelt, das ihm ähnlich ist, wodurch sich die Gattung erhält. Ein solches Ding ist das den organischen Leib durchdringende Lebensprinzip, die Seele, für die man im naiven Bewußtsein stets einen nach Analogie mit Sinnesrealitäten gebildeten Begriff findet, und ist endlich das göttliche Wesen des naiven Menschen. Dieses göttliche Wesen wird in einer Weise wirksam gedacht, die ganz dem entspricht, was als Wirkungsart des Menschen selbst wahrgenommen werden kann: anthropomorphisch.

[ 21 ] Die moderne Physik führt die Sinnesempfindungen auf Vorgänge der kleinsten Teile der Körper und eines unendlich feinen Stoffes, des Äthers oder auf Ähnliches zurück. Was wir zum Beispiel als Wärme empfinden, ist innerhalb des Raumes, den der wärmeverursachende Körper einnimmt, Bewegung seiner Teile. Auch hier wird wieder ein Unwahrnehmbares in Analogie mit dem Wahrnehmbaren gedacht. Das sinnliche Analogon des Begriffs «Körper» ist in diesem Sinne etwa das Innere eines allseitig geschlossenen Raumes, in dem sich nach allen Richtungen elastische Kugeln bewegen, die einander stoßen, an die Wände an- und von ihnen abprallen und so weiter.

[ 22 ] Ohne solche Annahmen zerfiele dem naiven Realismus die Welt in ein unzusammenhängendes Aggregat von Wahrnehmungen ohne gegenseitige Beziehungen, das sich zu keiner Einheit zusammenschließt. Es ist aber klar, daß der naive Realismus nur durch eine Inkonsequenz zu dieser Annahme kommen kann. Wenn er seinem Grundsatz: nur das Wahrgenommene ist wirklich, treu bleiben will, dann darf er doch, wo er nichts wahrnimmt, kein Wirkliches annehmen. Die unwahrnehmbaren Kräfte, die von den wahrnehmbaren Dingen aus wirken, sind eigentlich unberechtigte Hypothesen vom Standpunkte des naiven Realismus. Und weil er keine anderen Realitäten kennt, so stattet er seine hypothetischen Kräfte mit Wahrnehmungsinhalt aus. Er wendet also eine Seinsform (das Wahrnehmungsdasein) auf ein Gebiet an, wo ihm das Mittel fehlt, das allein über diese Seinsform eine Aussage zu machen hat: das sinnliche Wahrnehmen.

[ 23 ] Diese in sich widerspruchsvolle Weltanschauung führt zum metaphysischen Realismus. Der konstruiert neben der wahrnehmbaren Realität noch eine unwahrnehmbare, die er der erstem analog denkt. Der metaphysische Realismus ist deshalb notwendig Dualismus.

[ 24 ] Wo der metaphysischeRealismus eine Beziehung zwischen wahrnehmbaren Dingen bemerkt (Annäherung durch Bewegung, Bewußtwerden eines Objektiven usw.), da setzt er eine Realität hin. Die Beziehung, die er bemerkt, kann er jedoch nur durch das Denken ausdrücken, nicht aber wahrnehmen. Die ideelle Beziehung wird willkürlich zu einem dem Wahrnehmbaren Ähnlichen gemacht. So ist für diese Denkrichtung die wirkliche Welt zusammengesetzt aus den Wahrnehmungsobjekten, die im ewigen Werden sind, kommen und verschwinden, und aus den unwahrnehmbaren Kräften, von denen die Wahrnehmungsobjekte hervorgebracht werden, und die das Bleibende sind.

[ 25 ] Der metaphysische Realismus ist eine widerspruchsvolle Mischung des naiven Realismus mit dem Idealismus. Seine hypothetischen Kräfte sind unwahrnehmbare Wesenheiten mitWahrnehmungsqualitäten.Er hat sich entschlossen, außer dem Weltgebiete, für dessen Daseinsform er in dem Wahrnehmen ein Erkenntnismittel hat, noch ein Gebiet gelten zu lassen, bei dem dieses Mittel versagt, und das nur durch das Denken zu ermitteln ist. Er kann sich aber nicht zu gleicher Zeit auch entschließen, die Form des Seins, die ihm das Denken vermittelt, den Begriff (die Idee), auch als gleichberechtigten Faktor neben der Wahrnehmung anzuerkennen. Will man den Widerspruch der unwahrnehmbaren Wahrnehmung vermeiden, so muß man zugestehen, daß es für die durch das Denken vermittelten Beziehungen zwischen den Wahrnehmungen für uns keine andere Existenzform als die des Begriffes gibt. Als die Summe von Wahrnehmungen und ihrer begrifflichen (ideellen) Bezüge stellt sich die Welt dar, wenn man aus dem metaphysischen Realismus den unberechtigten Bestandteil hinauswirft. So läuft der metaphysische Realismus in eine Weltanschauung ein, welche für die Wahrnehmung das Prinzip der Wahrnehmbarkeit, für die Beziehungen unter den Wahrnehmungen die Denkbarkeit fordert. Diese Weltanschauung kann kein drittes Weltgebiet neben der Wahrnehmungs, und Begriffswelt gelten lassen, für das beide Prinzipien, das sogenannte Realprinzip und das Idealprinzip, zugleich Geltung haben.

[ 26 ] Wenn der metaphysische Realismus behauptet, daß neben der ideellen Beziehung zwischen dem Wahrnehmungsobjekt und seinem Wahrnehmungssubjekt noch eine reale Beziehung zwischen dem «Ding an sich» der Wahrnehmung und dem «Ding an sich» des wahrnehmbaren Subjektes (des sogenannten Individualgeistes) bestehen muß, so beruht diese Behauptung auf der falschen Annahme eines den Prozessen der Sinnenwelt analogen, nicht wahrnehmbaren Seinsprozesses. Wenn ferner der metaphysische Realismus sagt: Mit meiner Wahrnehmungswelt komme ich in ein bewußt-ideelles Verhältnis; mit der wirklichen Welt kann ich aber nur in ein dynamisches (Kräfte) Verhältnis kommen, — so begeht er nicht weniger den schon gerügten Fehler. Von einem Kräfteverhältnis kann nur innerhalb der Wahrnehmungswelt (dem Gebiete des Tastsinnes), nicht aber außerhalb desselben die Rede sein.

[ 27 ] Wir wollen die oben charakterisierte Weltanschauung, in die der metaphysische Realismus zuletzt einmündet, wenn er seine widerspruchsvollen Elemente abstreift, Monismus nennen, weil sie den einseitigen Realismus mit dem Idealismus zu einer höheren Einheit vereinigt.

[ 28 ] Für den naiven Realismus ist die wirkliche Welt eine Summe von Wahrnehmungsobjekten; für den metaphysischen Realismus kommt außer den Wahrnehmungen auch noch den unwahrnehmbarenKräftenRealität zu;derMonismus setzt an die Stelle von Kräften die ideellen Zusammenhänge, die er durch sein Denken gewinnt. SolcheZusammenhänge aber sind die Naturgesetze. Ein Naturgesetz ist ja nichts anderes als der begriffliche Ausdruck für den Zusammenhang gewisser Wahrnehmungen.

[ 29 ] Der Monismus kommt gar nicht in die Lage, außer Wahrnehmung und Begriff nach anderen Erklärungsprinzipien der Wirklichkeit zu fragen. Er weiß, daß sich im ganzen Be reiche der Wirklichkeit kein Anlaß dazu findet. Er sieht in der Wahrnehmungswelt, wie sie unmittelbar dem Wahrnehmen vorliegt, ein halbes Wirkliches; in der Vereinigung derselben mit der Begriffswelt findet er die volle Wirklichkeit. Der metaphysische Realist kann dem Anhänger des Monismus einwenden: Es mag sein, daß für deine Organisation deine Erkenntnis in sich vollkommen ist, daß kein Glied fehlt; du weißt aber nicht, wie sich die Welt in einer Intelligenz abspiegelt, die anders organisiert ist als die deinige. Die Antwort des Monismus wird sein: Wenn es andere Intelligenzen gibt als die menschlichen, wenn ihre Wahrnehmungen eine andere Gestalt haben als die unsrigen, so hat für mich Bedeutung nur dasjenige, was von ihnen zu mir durch Wahrnehmen und Begriff gelangt. Ich bin durch mein Wahrnehmen, und zwar durch dieses spezifische menschliche Wahrnehmen als Subjekt dem Objekt gegenübergestellt. Der Zusammenhang der Dinge ist damit unterbrochen. Das Subjekt stellt durch das Denken diesen Zusammenhang wieder her.Damit hat es sich dem Weltganzen wieder eingefügt. Da nur durch unser Subjekt dieses Ganze an der Stelle zwischen unserer Wahrnehmung und unserem Begriff zerschnitten erscheint, so ist in der Vereinigung dieser beiden auch eine wahre Erkenntnis gegeben. Für Wesen mit einer andern Wahrnehmungswelt (zum Beispiel mit der doppelten Anzahl von Sinnesorganen) erschiene der Zusammenhang an einer andern Stelle unterbrochen, und die Wiederherstellung müßte demnach auch eine diesen Wesen spezifische Gestalt haben. Nur für den naiven und den metaphysischen Realismus, die beide in dem Inhalte der Seele nur eine ideelle Repräsentation der Welt sehen, besteht die Frage nach der Grenze des Erkennens. Für sie ist nämlich das außerhalb des Subjektes Befindliche ein Absolutes, ein in sich Beruhendes, und der Inhalt des Subjektes ein Bild desselben, das schlechthin außerhalb dieses Absoluten steht. Die Vollkommenheit der Erkenntnis beruht auf der größeren oder geringeren Ähnlichkeit des Bildes mit dem absoluten Objekte. Ein Wesen, bei dem die Zahl der Sinne kleiner ist, als beim Menschen, wird weniger, eines, bei dem sie größer ist, mehr von der Welt wahrnehmen. Das erstere wird demnach eine unvollkommenere Erkenntnis haben als das letztere.

[ 30 ] Für den Monismus liegt die Sache anders. Durch die Organisation des wahrnehmenden Wesens wird die Gestalt bestimmt, wo der Weltzusammenhang in Subjekt und Objekt auseinandergerissen erscheint. Das Objekt ist kein absolutes, sondern nur ein relatives, in bezug auf dieses bestimmte Subjekt. Die Überbrückung des Gegensatzes kann demnach auch nur wieder in der ganz spezifischen, gerade dem menschlichen Subjekt eigenen Weise geschehen. Sobald das Ich, das in dem Wahrnehmen von der Welt abgetrennt ist, in der denkenden Betrachtung wieder in denWeltzusammenhang sich einfügt, dann hört alles weitere Fragen, das nur eine Folge der Trennung war, auf.

[ 31 ] Ein anders geartetes Wesen hätte eine anders geartete Erkenntnis. Die unsrige ist ausreichend, um die durch unser eigenes Wesen aufgestellten Fragen zu beantworten.

[ 32 ] Der metaphysische Realismus muß fragen: Wodurch ist das als Wahrnehmung Gegebene gegeben; wodurch wird das Subjekt affiziert?

[ 33 ] Für den Monismus ist die Wahrnehmung durch das Subjekt bestimmt. Dieses hat aber in dem Denken zugleich das Mittel, die durch es selbst hervorgerufene Bestimmtheit wieder aufzuheben.

[ 34 ] Der metaphysische Realismus steht vor einer weiteren Schwierigkeit, wenn er die Ähnlichkeit der Weltbilder verschiedener menschlicher Individuen erklären will. Er muß sich fragen: Wie kommt es, daß das Weltbild, das ich aus meiner subjektiv bestimmten Wahrnehmung und meinen Begriffen aufbaue, gleichkommt dem, das ein anderes menschliches Individuum aus denselben beiden subjektiven Faktoren aufbaut? Wie kann ich überhaupt aus meinem subjektiven Weltbilde auf das eines andern Menschen schließen? Daraus, daß die Menschen sich miteinander praktisch abfinden, glaubt der metaphysische Realist die Ähnlichkeit ihrer subjektiven Weltbilder erschließen zu können. Aus der Ähnlichkeit dieser Weltbilder schließt er dann weiter auf die Gleichheit der den einzelnen menschlichen Wahrnehmungssubjekten zugrunde liegenden Individualgeister oder der den Subjekten zugrunde liegenden «Ich an sich».

[ 35 ] Dieser Schluß ist also ein solcher aus einer Summe von Wirkungen auf den Charakter der ihnen zugrunde liegenden Ursachen. Wir glauben aus einer hinreichend großen Anzahl von Fällen den Sachverhalt so zu erkennen, daß wir wissen, wie sich die erschlossenen Ursachen in andern Fällen verhalten werden. Einen solchen Schluß nennen wir einen Induktionsschluß. Wir werden uns gendtigt sehen, die Resultate desselben zu modifizieren, wenn in einer weitern Beobachtung etwas Unerwartetes sich ergibt, weil der Charakter des Resultates doch nur durch die individuelle Gestalt der geschehenen Beobachtungen bestimmt ist. Diese bedingte Erkenntnis der Ursachen reiche aber für das praktische Leben vollständig aus, behauptet der metaphysische Realist.

[ 36 ] Der Induktionsschluß ist die methodische Grundlage des modernen metaphysischen Realismus. Es gab eine Zeit, in der man aus Begriffen glaubte etwas herauswickeln zu können, was nicht mehr Begriff ist. Man glaubte aus den Begriffen die metaphysischen Realwesen, deren der metaphysische Realismus einmal bedarf, erkennen zu können. Diese Art des Philosophierens gehört heute zu den überwundenen Dingen. Dafür aber glaubt man, aus einer genügend großen Anzahl von Wahrnehmungstatsachen auf den Charakter des Dinges an sich schließen zu können, das diesen Tatsachen zugrunde liegt. Wie früher aus dem Begriffe, so meint man heute das Metaphysische aus den Wahrnehmungen heraus-wickeln zu können. Da man die Begriffe in durchsichtiger Klarheit vor sich hat, so glaubte man aus ihnen auch das Metaphysische mit absoluter Sicherheit ableiten zu können. Die Wahrnehmungen liegen nicht mit gleich durchsichtiger Klarheit vor. Jede folgende stellt sich wieder etwas anders dar, als die gleichartigen vorhergehenden. Im Grunde wird daher das aus den vorhergehenden Erschlossene durch jede folgende etwas modifiziert. Die Gestalt, die man auf diese Weise für das Metaphysische gewinnt, ist also nur eine relativ richtige zu nennen; sie unterliegt der Korrektur durch künftige Fälle. Einen durch diesen methodischen Grundsatz bestimmten Charakter trägt die Metaphysik Eduard von Hartmanns, der als Motto auf das Titelblatt seines ersten Hauptwerkes gesetzt hat: «Spekulative Resultate nach induktiv naturwissenschaftlicher Methode. »

[ 37 ] Die Gestalt, die der metaphysische Realist gegenwärtig seinen Dingen an sich gibt, ist eine durch Induktionsschlüsse gewonnene. Von dem Vorhandensein eines objektiv-realen Zusammenhanges der Welt neben dem «subjektiven» durch Wahrnehmung und Begriff erkennbaren, ist er durch Erwägungen über den Erkenntnisprozeß überzeugt. Wie diese objektive Realität beschaffen ist, das glaubt er durch Induktionsschlüsse aus seinen Wahrnehmungen heraus bestimmen zu können.

VII: Are there limits to cognition?

[ 1 ] We have established that the elements for explaining reality are to be taken from the two spheres: perception and thought. As we have seen, our organization means that the full, total reality, including our own subject, initially appears to us as a duality. Cognition overcomes this duality by assembling the whole thing from the two elements of reality: perception and the concept developed through thinking. Let us call the way in which the world confronts us before it has gained its proper form through cognition the world of appearance in contrast to the entity composed of perception and concept. Then we can say: The world is given to us as a duality (dualistic), and cognition processes it into unity (monistic). A philosophy based on this fundamental principle can be described as monistic philosophy or monism. It is contrasted with the two-world theory or dualism. The latter does not assume two sides of the unified reality that are merely kept apart by our organization, but two absolutely different worlds. It then seeks explanatory principles for one world in the other.

[ 2 ] Dualism is based on a false conception of what we call cognition. It separates the whole of existence into two domains, each of which has its own laws, and leaves these domains externally opposed to each other

[ 3 ] The distinction between the object of perception and the "thing in itself", which was introduced into science by Kant and has not been removed to this day, arises from such dualism. According to our explanations, it is in the nature of our mental organization that a particular thing can only be given as perception. Thinking then overcomes particularization by assigning each perception its lawful place in the world as a whole. As long as the separate parts of the whole of the world are determined as perceptions, we are simply following a law of our subjectivity in the separation. But if we regard the sum of all perceptions as one part and then contrast this with a second part in the "things in themselves", we are philosophizing into the blue. We are then dealing with a mere conceptual game. We construct an artificial contrast, but cannot gain any content for the second part of it, because such a content can only be drawn from perception for a particular thing.

[ 4 ] Any kind of being that is assumed to exist outside the realm of perception and concept is to be relegated to the sphere of unjustified hypotheses. The "thing in itself" belongs to this category. It is only natural that the dualistic thinker cannot find the connection between the hypothetically assumed world principle and the experientially given. A content can only be gained for the hypothetical world principle if it is borrowed from the world of experience and this fact is ignored. Otherwise it remains an empty concept, a non-concept that only has the form of a concept. The dualistic thinker then usually claims that the content of this concept is inaccessible to our cognition; we can only know that such a content exists, not what exists. In both cases, overcoming dualism is impossible. If one brings a few abstract elements of the world of experience into the concept of the thing in itself, then it remains impossible to attribute the rich concrete life of experience to a few properties that are themselves only taken from this perception. Du Bois-Reymond thinks that the imperceptible atoms of matter generate sensation and feeling through their position and movement, and then comes to the conclusion: We can never arrive at a satisfactory explanation of how matter and motion produce sensation and feeling, for "it is quite and for ever incomprehensible that a number of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, etc., atoms should not be indifferent to each other. atoms should not be indifferent to how they lie and move, how they lay and moved, how they will lie and move. It is in no way comprehensible how consciousness could arise from their interaction". This conclusion is characteristic of the entire school of thought. From the rich world of perceptions is separated: Position and movement. These are transferred to the imaginary world of atoms. Then comes the astonishment that concrete life cannot be developed out of this self-made principle borrowed from the world of perception.

[ 5 ] It follows from the definition of his principle given above that the dualist, who works with a completely empty concept of the "in itself", cannot arrive at any explanation of the world.

[ 6 ] In any case, the dualist is forced to set insurmountable limits to our cognitive capacity. The adherent of a monistic worldview knows that everything he needs to explain a given phenomenon of the world must lie in the realm of the ultimate. What prevents him from arriving at this can only be accidental temporal or spatial barriers or deficiencies in his organization. And not the human organization in general, but only its particular individual organization.

[ 7 ] It follows from the concept of cognition, as we have defined it, that we cannot speak of limits to cognition. Cognition is not a general world affair, but a business that man has to settle with himself. Things do not demand an explanation. They exist and interact according to the laws that can be discovered through thinking. They exist in inseparable unity with these laws. Our ego confronts them and initially only grasps what we have described as perception. But the power to find the other part of reality is found within this ego. Only when the ego has united the two elements of reality, which are inseparably connected in the world, has the satisfaction of cognition occurred: the ego has arrived at reality again.

[ 8 ] The preconditions for the emergence of cognition are therefore by and for the ego. The latter poses the questions of cognition to itself. It takes them from the element of thinking, which is completely clear and transparent in itself. If we ask ourselves questions that we cannot answer, the content of the question cannot be clear and distinct in all its parts. It is not the world that asks us questions, but we ask them ourselves.

[ 9 ] I can imagine that I lack any possibility of answering a question that I find written down somewhere without knowing the sphere from which the content of the question is taken.

[ 10 ] Our cognition involves questions that are posed to us by the fact that a sphere of perception conditioned by place, time and subjective organization is confronted by a sphere of concepts pointing to the universality of the world. My task consists in balancing these two spheres, which are well known to me. There can be no talk of a limit to cognition. This or that can remain unexplained at any given time because we are prevented by the scene of life from perceiving the things that are involved. But what is not found today may be found tomorrow. The barriers caused by this are only temporary and can be overcome with the progression of perception and thought.

[ 11 ] Dualism makes the mistake of transferring the opposition of object and subject, which only has meaning within the realm of perception, to purely imagined entities outside of it. But since the things separated within the perceptual horizon are only separate as long as the perceiver abstains from thinking, which abolishes all separation and allows it to be recognized as merely subjectively conditioned, the dualist transfers determinations to entities behind the perceptions, which themselves have no absolute, but only a relative validity for them. He thus breaks down the two factors relevant to the process of cognition, perception and concept, into four: 1. the object in itself; 2. the perception that the subject has of the object; 3. the subject; 4. the concept that relates the perception to the object in itself. The relationship between the object and the subject is a real one; the subject is really (dynamically) influenced by the object. This real process should not fall into our consciousness. But it is supposed to produce a counter-effect in the subject to the effect emanating from the object. The result of this counter-effect should be perception. This only falls into consciousness. The object has an objective reality (independent of the subject), the perception a subjective reality. This subjective reality relates the subject to the object. The latter relationship is an ideal one. Dualism thus splits the process of cognition into two parts. One part, the creation of the object of perception from the "thing in itself", takes place outside, the other, the connection of perception with the concept and its relation to the object, within consciousness. Under these conditions, it is clear that the dualist believes to gain in his concepts only subjective representations of what lies before his consciousness. The objectively real process in the subject, through which perception comes about, and all the more the objective relationships of the "things in themselves" remain directly unrecognizable for such a dualist; in his opinion, man can only obtain conceptual representations for the objectively real. The unifying bond of things, which connects them among themselves and objectively with our individual spirit (as a "thing in itself"), lies beyond consciousness in a being in itself, of which we could also only have a conceptual representative in our consciousness.

[ 12 ] Dualism believes that the whole world evaporates into an abstract conceptual scheme if it does not establish real connections alongside the conceptual connections of the objects. In other words: for the dualist, the ideal principles that can be found through thinking appear too airy, and he still seeks real principles that can support them.

[ 13 ] Let us take a closer look at these real principles. The naive person (naive realist) regards the objects of external experience as realities. The fact that he can grasp these things with his hands and see them with his eyes is regarded by him as evidence of reality. "Nothing exists that cannot be perceived" is virtually the first axiom of the naive person, which is just as well recognized in its inversion: "Everything that can be perceived exists." The best proof of this assertion is the naive person's belief in immortality and spirits. They imagine the soul as subtle sensual matter that can even become visible to ordinary people under special conditions (naive belief in ghosts).

[ 14 ] For the naive realist, everything else, namely the world of ideas, is unreal, "merely ideal" in comparison to this real world. What we think in addition to the objects is merely thought about the things. Thought adds nothing real to perception.

[ 15 ] But it is not only with regard to the existence of things that the naive person considers sense perception to be the only testimony to reality, but also with regard to events. In his view, one thing can only have an effect on another if a force available for sensory perception emanates from the one and grips the other. The older physics believed that very fine substances emanate from the bodies and penetrate the soul through our sensory organs. The real seeing of these substances is only impossible because of the coarseness of our senses in relation to the fineness of these substances. In principle, these substances were conceded reality for the same reason that objects of the sensory world are conceded reality, namely because of their form of being, which was thought to be analogous to that of sensory reality.

[ 16 ] The intrinsic essence of the ideal experience is not regarded by the naive consciousness as real in the same sense as the sensory experience. An object grasped in the "mere idea" is regarded as a mere chimera until the conviction of reality can be delivered through sensory perception. To put it briefly, the naive person demands the real testimony of the senses in addition to the ideal testimony of his thinking. In this need of naive man lies the reason for the emergence of primitive forms of belief in revelation. The God who is given through thinking always remains only a "thought" God to the naive consciousness. The naive consciousness demands manifestation through means that are accessible to sensory perception. The God must appear in the flesh, and one wants to place little value on the testimony of thought, only, for example, on the fact that divinity is proven through the sensually ascertainable transformation of water into wine.

[ 17 ] The naive person also imagines cognition itself as a process analogous to sensory processes. Things make an impression in the soul, or they send out images that penetrate through the senses and so on.

[ 18 ] That which the naive person can perceive with the senses, he considers to be real, and that of which he has no such perception (God, soul, cognition, etc.), he imagines to be analogous to what he perceives.

[ 19 ] If naive realism wants to establish a science, it can only see such a science in an exact description of the content of perception. The concepts are only a means to an end. They are there to create ideal counter-images for the perceptions. They mean nothing for the things themselves. For the naive realist, only the tulip individuals that are seen or can be seen are considered real; the one idea of the tulip is considered an abstraction, an unreal mental image that the soul has assembled from the characteristics common to all tulips.

[ 20 ] Naïve realism with its principle of the reality of everything perceived is refuted by experience, which teaches that the content of perceptions is of a transitory nature. The tulip that I see is real today; after a year it will have disappeared into nothingness. What has survived is the genus tulip. For naive realism, however, this genus is "only" an idea, not a reality. Thus, this worldview sees itself in a position to see its realities come and disappear, while what it considers to be unreal asserts itself against the real. Naive realism must therefore accept something ideal in addition to perceptions. It must take into itself entities that it cannot perceive with the senses. It comes to terms with itself by thinking their form of existence analogous to that of the sense objects. Such hypothetically assumed realities are the invisible forces through which the sensually perceptible things interact. Such a thing is heredity, which continues beyond the individual, and which is the reason why a new one develops from the individual, which is similar to it, whereby the species is preserved. Such a thing is the life principle that permeates the organic body, the soul, for which one always finds a concept in naive consciousness formed by analogy with sense realities, and is finally the divine essence of naive man. This divine essence is thought to be effective in a way that corresponds entirely to what can be perceived as the mode of action of man himself: anthropomorphic.

[ 21 ] Modern physics attributes sensory perceptions to processes of the smallest parts of bodies and an infinitely fine substance, the ether or something similar. What we perceive as heat, for example, is the movement of its parts within the space occupied by the body that causes the heat. Here again, the imperceptible is conceived in analogy with the perceptible. In this sense, the sensory analog of the term "body" is, for example, the interior of a room closed on all sides, in which elastic spheres move in all directions, colliding with each other, bouncing against and off the walls and so on.

[ 22 ] Without such assumptions, naïve realism would see the world as a disjointed aggregate of perceptions without mutual relationships that does not coalesce into a unity. It is clear, however, that naive realism can only arrive at this assumption through an inconsistency. If it wants to remain true to its principle that only what is perceived is real, then it cannot assume anything real where it perceives nothing. The imperceptible forces that act from the perceptible things are actually unjustified hypotheses from the standpoint of naive realism. And because it knows of no other realities, it endows its hypothetical forces with perceptual content. He thus applies a form of being (perceptual existence) to an area where he lacks the means that alone can make a statement about this form of being: sensory perception.

[ 23 ] This inherently contradictory worldview leads to metaphysical realism. In addition to the perceptible reality, it constructs an imperceptible one, which it thinks is analogous to the first. Metaphysical realism is therefore necessarily dualism.

[ 24 ] Where metaphysical realism notices a relationship between perceptible things (approach through movement, becoming aware of an objective, etc.), it posits a reality. However, the relationship he notices can only be expressed by thinking, not perceived. The ideal relationship is arbitrarily made into something similar to the perceptible. Thus, for this school of thought, the real world is composed of the objects of perception, which are in eternal becoming, coming and disappearing, and of the imperceptible forces by which the objects of perception are produced and which are the permanent things.

[ 25 ] Metaphysical realism is a contradictory mixture of naive realism and idealism. Its hypothetical powers are imperceptible entities with perceptual qualities, and it has decided to admit, in addition to the realm of the world for whose form of existence it has a means of knowledge in perception, a realm in which this means fails and which can only be determined by thinking. At the same time, however, he cannot also decide to recognize the form of being that thinking conveys to him, the concept (the idea), as an equally valid factor alongside perception. If we want to avoid the contradiction of imperceptible perception, we must concede that for us there is no other form of existence for the relationships between perceptions mediated by thinking than that of the concept. The world presents itself as the sum of perceptions and their conceptual (ideal) references if we throw out the unjustified component of metaphysical realism. Thus metaphysical realism leads to a worldview that demands the principle of perceptibility for perception and conceivability for the relationships between perceptions. This worldview cannot accept a third realm alongside the perceptual and conceptual world, for which both principles, the so-called real principle and the ideal principle, are valid at the same time.

[ 26 ] If metaphysical realism asserts that, in addition to the ideal relationship between the object of perception and its subject of perception, there must also be a real relationship between the "thing in itself" of perception and the "thing in itself" of the perceptible subject (the so-called individual spirit), then this assertion is based on the false assumption of a non-perceptible process of being analogous to the processes of the sense world. Furthermore, when metaphysical realism says: With my perceptual world I come into a conscious-ideal relationship; with the real world, however, I can only come into a dynamic (force) relationship, - it commits no less the error already criticized. We can only speak of a relation of forces within the world of perception (the realm of the sense of touch), but not outside it.

[ 27 ] We want to call the world view characterized above, into which metaphysical realism ultimately leads when it sheds its contradictory elements, monism, because it unites one-sided realism with idealism into a higher unity.

[ 28 ] For naïve realism, the real world is a sum of perceptual objects; for metaphysical realism, in addition to perceptions, the imperceptible forces also have reality; monism replaces forces with ideal connections, which it gains through its thinking. Such connections, however, are the laws of nature. A law of nature is nothing other than the conceptual expression for the connection between certain perceptions.

[ 29 ] Monism is not in a position to ask for other principles of explanation of reality apart from perception and concept. It knows that there is no reason to do so in the whole realm of reality. He sees in the perceptual world, as it is immediately available to perception, a half-reality; in the union of this with the conceptual world he finds the full reality. The metaphysical realist can object to the supporter of monism: It may be that for your organization your cognition is perfect in itself, that no link is missing; but you do not know how the world is reflected in an intelligence that is organized differently from yours. The answer of monism will be: If there are intelligences other than human intelligences, if their perceptions have a different form than ours, then only that which comes to me from them through perception and conception has meaning for me. Through my perception, and indeed through this specific human perception, I am confronted with the object as subject. The connection between things is thus interrupted. The subject re-establishes this connection through thinking and has thus reintegrated itself into the world as a whole. Since it is only through our subject that this whole appears to be severed at the point between our perception and our concept, true knowledge is also given in the unification of these two. For beings with a different perceptual world (for example, with twice the number of sense organs), the connection would appear to be interrupted at a different point, and the restoration would therefore also have to have a form specific to these beings. Only for naive and metaphysical realism, both of which see in the content of the soul only an ideal representation of the world, does the question of the limit of cognition exist. For them, that which is outside the subject is an absolute, something that rests in itself, and the content of the subject is an image of it that stands absolutely outside this absolute. The perfection of cognition is based on the greater or lesser similarity of the image to the absolute object. A being in which the number of senses is smaller than in man will perceive less of the world, one in which it is greater will perceive more. The former will therefore have a more imperfect cognition than the latter.

[ 30 ] For monism, the situation is different. The form is determined by the organization of the perceiving being, where the world context appears torn apart into subject and object. The object is not an absolute, but only a relative one in relation to this particular subject. The bridging of the opposition can therefore only happen again in the very specific way that is peculiar to the human subject. As soon as the ego, which is separated from the world in perception, is reintegrated into the world context in thinking observation, then all further questioning, which was only a consequence of the separation, ceases.

[ 31 ] A different kind of being would have a different kind of cognition. Ours is sufficient to answer the questions posed by our own being.

[ 32 ] Metaphysical realism must ask: By what is that which is given as perception given; by what is the subject affected?

[ 33 ] For monism, perception is determined by the subject. At the same time, however, the subject has in thinking the means to abolish the determination caused by itself.

[ 34 ] Metaphysical realism faces a further difficulty if it wants to explain the similarity of the world views of different human individuals. It must ask itself: How is it that the world view that I construct from my subjectively determined perception and my concepts is the same as that which another human individual constructs from the same two subjective factors? How can I even draw conclusions from my subjective world view to that of another person? The metaphysical realist believes that he can deduce the similarity of their subjective world views from the fact that people practically come to terms with each other. From the similarity of these world views, he then further infers the sameness of the individual spirits underlying the individual human subjects of perception or the "I in itself" underlying the subjects.

[ 35 ] This conclusion is thus one from a sum of effects to the character of the underlying causes. We believe that we can recognize the facts from a sufficiently large number of cases in such a way that we know how the inferred causes will behave in other cases. We call such an inference an inductive inference. We shall find ourselves obliged to modify the results of such an inference if something unexpected turns up in a further observation, because the character of the result is determined only by the individual form of the observations made. This conditional knowledge of causes, however, is completely sufficient for practical life, claims the metaphysical realist.

[ 36 ] Inductive reasoning is the methodological basis of modern metaphysical realism. There was a time when it was believed that something could be developed from concepts that was no longer a concept. It was believed that the metaphysical real beings that metaphysical realism requires could be recognized from the concepts. Today, this kind of philosophizing is a thing of the past. Instead, however, one believes that from a sufficiently large number of facts of perception one can deduce the character of the thing in itself that underlies these facts. As in the past from the concept, so today we believe we can develop the metaphysical from the perceptions. Since we have the concepts before us in transparent clarity, we believe that we can also deduce the metaphysical from them with absolute certainty. The perceptions are not equally transparent. Each subsequent one presents itself somewhat differently from the previous ones of the same kind. Basically, therefore, what is deduced from the previous ones is modified somewhat by each subsequent one. The form that is obtained in this way for the metaphysical can therefore only be called a relatively correct one; it is subject to correction by future cases. The metaphysics of Eduard von Hartmann, whose motto on the title page of his first major work is: "Spekulative Resultate nach induktiv naturwissenschaftlicher Methode. "

[ 37 ] The form that the metaphysical realist currently gives to his things in themselves is one obtained through inductive conclusions. He is convinced of the existence of an objectively real context of the world in addition to the "subjective" one recognizable through perception and concept through considerations about the process of cognition. He believes that he can determine the nature of this objective reality through inductive conclusions from his perceptions.